Daily Papers

The Rubiks Cube, with its vast state space and sparse reward structure, presents a significant challenge for reinforcement learning (RL) due to the difficulty of reaching rewarded states. Previous research addressed this by propagating cost-to-go estimates from the solved state and incorporating search techniques. These approaches differ from human strategies that start from fully scrambled cubes, which can be tricky for solving a general sparse-reward problem. In this paper, we introduce a novel RL algorithm using policy gradient methods to solve the Rubiks Cube without relying on near solved-state sampling. Our approach employs a neural network to predict cost patterns between states, allowing the agent to learn directly from scrambled states. Our method was tested on the 2x2x2 Rubiks Cube, where the cube was scrambled 50,000 times, and the model successfully solved it in over 99.4% of cases. Notably, this result was achieved using only the policy network without relying on tree search as in previous methods, demonstrating its effectiveness and potential for broader applications in sparse-reward problems.

Training-free metrics (a.k.a. zero-cost proxies) are widely used to avoid resource-intensive neural network training, especially in Neural Architecture Search (NAS). Recent studies show that existing training-free metrics have several limitations, such as limited correlation and poor generalisation across different search spaces and tasks. Hence, we propose Sample-Wise Activation Patterns and its derivative, SWAP-Score, a novel high-performance training-free metric. It measures the expressivity of networks over a batch of input samples. The SWAP-Score is strongly correlated with ground-truth performance across various search spaces and tasks, outperforming 15 existing training-free metrics on NAS-Bench-101/201/301 and TransNAS-Bench-101. The SWAP-Score can be further enhanced by regularisation, which leads to even higher correlations in cell-based search space and enables model size control during the search. For example, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient between regularised SWAP-Score and CIFAR-100 validation accuracies on NAS-Bench-201 networks is 0.90, significantly higher than 0.80 from the second-best metric, NWOT. When integrated with an evolutionary algorithm for NAS, our SWAP-NAS achieves competitive performance on CIFAR-10 and ImageNet in approximately 6 minutes and 9 minutes of GPU time respectively.

Transformers provide a class of expressive architectures that are extremely effective for sequence modeling. However, the key limitation of transformers is their quadratic memory and time complexity O(L^2) with respect to the sequence length in attention layers, which restricts application in extremely long sequences. Most existing approaches leverage sparsity or low-rank assumptions in the attention matrix to reduce cost, but sacrifice expressiveness. Instead, we propose Combiner, which provides full attention capability in each attention head while maintaining low computation and memory complexity. The key idea is to treat the self-attention mechanism as a conditional expectation over embeddings at each location, and approximate the conditional distribution with a structured factorization. Each location can attend to all other locations, either via direct attention, or through indirect attention to abstractions, which are again conditional expectations of embeddings from corresponding local regions. We show that most sparse attention patterns used in existing sparse transformers are able to inspire the design of such factorization for full attention, resulting in the same sub-quadratic cost (O(Llog(L)) or O(LL)). Combiner is a drop-in replacement for attention layers in existing transformers and can be easily implemented in common frameworks. An experimental evaluation on both autoregressive and bidirectional sequence tasks demonstrates the effectiveness of this approach, yielding state-of-the-art results on several image and text modeling tasks.

Small Language Models (SLMs) offer compelling advantages in deployment cost and latency, but their accuracy often lags behind larger models, particularly for complex domain-specific tasks. While supervised fine-tuning can help bridge this performance gap, it requires substantial manual effort in data preparation and iterative optimization. We present PaDA-Agent (Pattern-guided Data Augmentation Agent), an evaluation-driven approach that streamlines the data augmentation process for SLMs through coordinated operations. Unlike state-of-the-art approaches that focus on model training errors only and generating error-correcting samples, PaDA-Agent discovers failure patterns from the validation data via evaluations and drafts targeted data augmentation strategies aiming to directly reduce the generalization gap. Our experimental results demonstrate significant improvements over state-of-the-art LLM-based data augmentation approaches for Llama 3.2 1B Instruct model fine-tuning.

Portfolio Selection is an important real-world financial task and has attracted extensive attention in artificial intelligence communities. This task, however, has two main difficulties: (i) the non-stationary price series and complex asset correlations make the learning of feature representation very hard; (ii) the practicality principle in financial markets requires controlling both transaction and risk costs. Most existing methods adopt handcraft features and/or consider no constraints for the costs, which may make them perform unsatisfactorily and fail to control both costs in practice. In this paper, we propose a cost-sensitive portfolio selection method with deep reinforcement learning. Specifically, a novel two-stream portfolio policy network is devised to extract both price series patterns and asset correlations, while a new cost-sensitive reward function is developed to maximize the accumulated return and constrain both costs via reinforcement learning. We theoretically analyze the near-optimality of the proposed reward, which shows that the growth rate of the policy regarding this reward function can approach the theoretical optimum. We also empirically evaluate the proposed method on real-world datasets. Promising results demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed method in terms of profitability, cost-sensitivity and representation abilities.

Neighborhood attention reduces the cost of self attention by restricting each token's attention span to its nearest neighbors. This restriction, parameterized by a window size and dilation factor, draws a spectrum of possible attention patterns between linear projection and self attention. Neighborhood attention, and more generally sliding window attention patterns, have long been bounded by infrastructure, particularly in higher-rank spaces (2-D and 3-D), calling for the development of custom kernels, which have been limited in either functionality, or performance, if not both. In this work, we first show that neighborhood attention can be represented as a batched GEMM problem, similar to standard attention, and implement it for 1-D and 2-D neighborhood attention. These kernels on average provide 895% and 272% improvement in full precision latency compared to existing naive kernels for 1-D and 2-D neighborhood attention respectively. We find certain inherent inefficiencies in all unfused neighborhood attention kernels that bound their performance and lower-precision scalability. We also developed fused neighborhood attention; an adaptation of fused dot-product attention kernels that allow fine-grained control over attention across different spatial axes. Known for reducing the quadratic time complexity of self attention to a linear complexity, neighborhood attention can now enjoy a reduced and constant memory footprint, and record-breaking half precision latency. We observe that our fused kernels successfully circumvent some of the unavoidable inefficiencies in unfused implementations. While our unfused GEMM-based kernels only improve half precision performance compared to naive kernels by an average of 496% and 113% in 1-D and 2-D problems respectively, our fused kernels improve naive kernels by an average of 1607% and 581% in 1-D and 2-D problems respectively.

Conventional medical cancer screening methods are costly, labor-intensive, and extremely difficult to scale. Although AI can improve cancer detection, most systems rely on complex or specialized medical data, making them impractical for large-scale screening. We introduce Can-SAVE, a lightweight AI system that ranks population-wide cancer risks solely based on medical history events. By integrating survival model outputs into a gradient-boosting framework, our approach detects subtle, long-term patient risk patterns - often well before clinical symptoms manifest. Can-SAVE was rigorously evaluated on a real-world dataset of 2.5 million adults spanning five Russian regions, marking the study as one of the largest and most comprehensive deployments of AI-driven cancer risk assessment. In a retrospective oncologist-supervised study over 1.9M patients, Can-SAVE achieves a 4-10x higher detection rate at identical screening volumes and an Average Precision (AP) of 0.228 vs. 0.193 for the best baseline (LoRA-tuned Qwen3-Embeddings via DeepSeek-R1 summarization). In a year-long prospective pilot (426K patients), our method almost doubled the cancer detection rate (+91%) and increased population coverage by 36% over the national screening protocol. The system demonstrates practical scalability: a city-wide population of 1 million patients can be processed in under three hours using standard hardware, enabling seamless clinical integration. This work proves that Can-SAVE achieves nationally significant cancer detection improvements while adhering to real-world public healthcare constraints, offering immediate clinical utility and a replicable framework for population-wide screening. Code for training and feature engineering is available at https://github.com/sb-ai-lab/Can-SAVE.

Contemporary intelligent systems incorporate software components, including machine learning components. As they grow in complexity and data volume such machine learning systems face unique quality challenges like scalability and performance. To overcome them, engineers may often use specific architectural patterns, however their impact on ML systems is difficult to quantify. The effect of software architecture on traditional systems is well studied, however more work is needed in the area of machine learning systems. This study proposes a framework for quantitative assessment of architectural patterns in ML systems, focusing on scalability and performance metrics for cost-effective CPU-based inference. We integrate these metrics into a systematic evaluation process for selection of architectural patterns and demonstrate its application through a case study. The approach shown in the paper should enable software architects to objectively analyze and select optimal patterns, addressing key challenges in ML system design.

Traffic Signal Control (TSC) is a crucial component in urban traffic management, aiming to optimize road network efficiency and reduce congestion. Traditional methods in TSC, primarily based on transportation engineering and reinforcement learning (RL), often exhibit limitations in generalization across varied traffic scenarios and lack interpretability. This paper presents LLMLight, a novel framework employing Large Language Models (LLMs) as decision-making agents for TSC. Specifically, the framework begins by instructing the LLM with a knowledgeable prompt detailing real-time traffic conditions. Leveraging the advanced generalization capabilities of LLMs, LLMLight engages a reasoning and decision-making process akin to human intuition for effective traffic control. Moreover, we build LightGPT, a specialized backbone LLM tailored for TSC tasks. By learning nuanced traffic patterns and control strategies, LightGPT enhances the LLMLight framework cost-effectively. Extensive experiments on nine real-world and synthetic datasets showcase the remarkable effectiveness, generalization ability, and interpretability of LLMLight against nine transportation-based and RL-based baselines.

Gene expression can be used to subtype breast cancer with improved prediction of risk of recurrence and treatment responsiveness over that obtained using routine immunohistochemistry (IHC). However, in the clinic, molecular profiling is primarily used for ER+ breast cancer, which is costly, tissue destructive, requires specialized platforms and takes several weeks to obtain a result. Deep learning algorithms can effectively extract morphological patterns in digital histopathology images to predict molecular phenotypes quickly and cost-effectively. We propose a new, computationally efficient approach called hist2RNA inspired by bulk RNA-sequencing techniques to predict the expression of 138 genes (incorporated from six commercially available molecular profiling tests), including luminal PAM50 subtype, from hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained whole slide images (WSIs). The training phase involves the aggregation of extracted features for each patient from a pretrained model to predict gene expression at the patient level using annotated H&E images from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA, n=335). We demonstrate successful gene prediction on a held-out test set (n = 160, corr = 0.82 across patients, corr = 0.29 across genes) and perform exploratory analysis on an external tissue microarray (TMA) dataset (n = 498) with known IHC and survival information. Our model is able to predict gene expression and luminal PAM50 subtype (Luminal A versus Luminal B) on the TMA dataset with prognostic significance for overall survival in univariate analysis (c-index = 0.56, hazard ratio = 2.16 (95% CI 1.12-3.06), p < 5 x 10-3), and independent significance in multivariate analysis incorporating standard clinicopathological variables (c-index = 0.65, hazard ratio = 1.85 (95% CI 1.30-2.68), p < 5 x 10-3).

We introduce SIRI, Scaling Iterative Reinforcement Learning with Interleaved Compression, a simple yet effective RL approach for Large Reasoning Models (LRMs) that enables more efficient and accurate reasoning. Existing studies have observed repetitive thinking patterns in LRMs, and attempts to reduce them often come at the cost of performance. In this paper, we show that this trade-off can be overcome through a training regime that iteratively alternates between compressing and expanding the reasoning budget, by dynamically adjusting the maximum rollout length during training. The compression phase cuts the rollout length, forcing the model to make precise and valuable decisions within a limited context, which effectively reduces redundant tokens and increases reasoning density. The expansion phase then relaxes the length limit, providing space for the model to explore and plan in long-horizon settings. Remarkably, we find that after each compression-expansion cycle, the model's performance improves even as its output length decreases, steadily pushing it closer to the Pareto frontier in the performance-efficiency trade-off. Training on DeepSeek-R1-Distill-Qwen-1.5B, SIRI-low improves performance on AIME24 by 43.2% while reducing token usage by 46.9% after three iterations, and SIRI-high achieves the highest accuracy compared to all other methods (Figure 1). Our findings shed light on the potential of periodically oscillating the LRM's output truncation length during training to dynamically balance exploration and efficiency in reasoning, converging towards an optimal "sweet spot" between the two. Our models are publicly available.

A modern challenge of Artificial Intelligence is learning multiple patterns at once (i.e.parallel learning). While this can not be accomplished by standard Hebbian associative neural networks, in this paper we show how the Multitasking Hebbian Network (a variation on theme of the Hopfield model working on sparse data-sets) is naturally able to perform this complex task. We focus on systems processing in parallel a finite (up to logarithmic growth in the size of the network) amount of patterns, mirroring the low-storage level of standard associative neural networks at work with pattern recognition. For mild dilution in the patterns, the network handles them hierarchically, distributing the amplitudes of their signals as power-laws w.r.t. their information content (hierarchical regime), while, for strong dilution, all the signals pertaining to all the patterns are raised with the same strength (parallel regime). Further, confined to the low-storage setting (i.e., far from the spin glass limit), the presence of a teacher neither alters the multitasking performances nor changes the thresholds for learning: the latter are the same whatever the training protocol is supervised or unsupervised. Results obtained through statistical mechanics, signal-to-noise technique and Monte Carlo simulations are overall in perfect agreement and carry interesting insights on multiple learning at once: for instance, whenever the cost-function of the model is minimized in parallel on several patterns (in its description via Statistical Mechanics), the same happens to the standard sum-squared error Loss function (typically used in Machine Learning).

Long-context understanding is crucial for many NLP applications, yet transformers struggle with efficiency due to the quadratic complexity of self-attention. Sparse attention methods alleviate this cost but often impose static, predefined masks, failing to capture heterogeneous attention patterns. This results in suboptimal token interactions, limiting adaptability and retrieval accuracy in long-sequence tasks. This work introduces a dynamic sparse attention mechanism that assigns adaptive masks at the attention-map level, preserving heterogeneous patterns across layers and heads. Unlike existing approaches, our method eliminates the need for fine-tuning and predefined mask structures while maintaining computational efficiency. By learning context-aware attention structures, it achieves high alignment with full-attention models, ensuring minimal performance degradation while reducing memory and compute overhead. This approach provides a scalable alternative to full attention, enabling the practical deployment of large-scale Large Language Models (LLMs) without sacrificing retrieval performance. DAM is available at: https://github.com/HanzhiZhang-Ulrica/DAM.

Transformers have become one of the dominant architectures in deep learning, particularly as a powerful alternative to convolutional neural networks (CNNs) in computer vision. However, Transformer training and inference in previous works can be prohibitively expensive due to the quadratic complexity of self-attention over a long sequence of representations, especially for high-resolution dense prediction tasks. To this end, we present a novel Less attention vIsion Transformer (LIT), building upon the fact that the early self-attention layers in Transformers still focus on local patterns and bring minor benefits in recent hierarchical vision Transformers. Specifically, we propose a hierarchical Transformer where we use pure multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs) to encode rich local patterns in the early stages while applying self-attention modules to capture longer dependencies in deeper layers. Moreover, we further propose a learned deformable token merging module to adaptively fuse informative patches in a non-uniform manner. The proposed LIT achieves promising performance on image recognition tasks, including image classification, object detection and instance segmentation, serving as a strong backbone for many vision tasks. Code is available at: https://github.com/zhuang-group/LIT

We propose a lightweight scheme where the formation of a data block is changed in such a way that it can tolerate soft errors significantly better than the baseline. The key insight behind our work is that CNN weights are normalized between -1 and 1 after each convolutional layer, and this leaves one bit unused in half-precision floating-point representation. By taking advantage of the unused bit, we create a backup for the most significant bit to protect it against the soft errors. Also, considering the fact that in MLC STT-RAMs the cost of memory operations (read and write), and reliability of a cell are content-dependent (some patterns take larger current and longer time, while they are more susceptible to soft error), we rearrange the data block to minimize the number of costly bit patterns. Combining these two techniques provides the same level of accuracy compared to an error-free baseline while improving the read and write energy by 9% and 6%, respectively.

Many applications must provide low-latency LLM service to users or risk unacceptable user experience. However, over-provisioning resources to serve fluctuating request patterns is often prohibitively expensive. In this work, we present a best-effort serving system that employs deep reinforcement learning to adjust service quality based on the task distribution and system load. Our best-effort system can maintain availability with over 10x higher client request rates, serves above 96% of peak performance 4.1x more often, and serves above 98% of peak performance 2.3x more often than static serving on unpredictable workloads. Our learned router is robust to shifts in both the arrival and task distribution. Compared to static serving, learned best-effort serving allows for cost-efficient serving through increased hardware utility. Additionally, we argue that learned best-effort LLM serving is applicable in wide variety of settings and provides application developers great flexibility to meet their specific needs.

Query-focused summarization (QFS) aims to provide a summary of a single document/multi documents that can satisfy the information needs of a given query. It is useful for various real-world applications, such as abstractive snippet generation or more recent retrieval augmented generation (RAG). A prototypical QFS pipeline consists of a retriever (sparse or dense retrieval) and a generator (usually a large language model). However, applying large language models (LLM) potentially leads to hallucinations, especially when the evidence contradicts the prior belief of LLMs. There has been growing interest in developing new decoding methods to improve generation quality and reduce hallucination. In this work, we conduct a large-scale reproducibility study on one recently proposed decoding method -- Context-aware Decoding (CAD). In addition to replicating CAD's experiments on news summarization datasets, we include experiments on QFS datasets, and conduct more rigorous analysis on computational complexity and hyperparameter sensitivity. Experiments with eight different language models show that performance-wise, CAD improves QFS quality by (1) reducing factuality errors/hallucinations while (2) mostly retaining the match of lexical patterns, measured by ROUGE scores, while also at a cost of increased inference-time FLOPs and reduced decoding speed. The code implementation based on Huggingface Library is made available https://github.com/zhichaoxu-shufe/context-aware-decoding-qfs

LLMs have long demonstrated remarkable effectiveness in automatic program repair (APR), with OpenAI's ChatGPT being one of the most widely used models in this domain. Through continuous iterations and upgrades of GPT-family models, their performance in fixing bugs has already reached state-of-the-art levels. However, there are few works comparing the effectiveness and variations of different versions of GPT-family models on APR. In this work, inspired by the recent public release of the GPT-o1 models, we conduct the first study to compare the effectiveness of different versions of the GPT-family models in APR. We evaluate the performance of the latest version of the GPT-family models (i.e., O1-preview and O1-mini), GPT-4o, and the historical version of ChatGPT on APR. We conduct an empirical study of the four GPT-family models against other LLMs and APR techniques on the QuixBugs benchmark from multiple evaluation perspectives, including repair success rate, repair cost, response length, and behavior patterns. The results demonstrate that O1's repair capability exceeds that of prior GPT-family models, successfully fixing all 40 bugs in the benchmark. Our work can serve as a foundation for further in-depth exploration of the applications of GPT-family models in APR.

Contemporary diffusion models built upon U-Net or Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architectures have revolutionized image generation through transformer-based attention mechanisms. The prevailing paradigm has commonly employed self-attention with quadratic computational complexity to handle global spatial relationships in complex images, thereby synthesizing high-fidelity images with coherent visual semantics.Contrary to conventional wisdom, our systematic layer-wise analysis reveals an interesting discrepancy: self-attention in pre-trained diffusion models predominantly exhibits localized attention patterns, closely resembling convolutional inductive biases. This suggests that global interactions in self-attention may be less critical than commonly assumed.Driven by this, we propose \(\Delta\)ConvFusion to replace conventional self-attention modules with Pyramid Convolution Blocks (\(\Delta\)ConvBlocks).By distilling attention patterns into localized convolutional operations while keeping other components frozen, \(\Delta\)ConvFusion achieves performance comparable to transformer-based counterparts while reducing computational cost by 6929times and surpassing LinFusion by 5.42times in efficiency--all without compromising generative fidelity.

Many cyberattacks start with disseminating phishing URLs. When clicking these phishing URLs, the victim's private information is leaked to the attacker. There have been proposed several machine learning methods to detect phishing URLs. However, it still remains under-explored to detect phishing URLs with evasion, i.e., phishing URLs that pretend to be benign by manipulating patterns. In many cases, the attacker i) reuses prepared phishing web pages because making a completely brand-new set costs non-trivial expenses, ii) prefers hosting companies that do not require private information and are cheaper than others, iii) prefers shared hosting for cost efficiency, and iv) sometimes uses benign domains, IP addresses, and URL string patterns to evade existing detection methods. Inspired by those behavioral characteristics, we present a network-based inference method to accurately detect phishing URLs camouflaged with legitimate patterns, i.e., robust to evasion. In the network approach, a phishing URL will be still identified as phishy even after evasion unless a majority of its neighbors in the network are evaded at the same time. Our method consistently shows better detection performance throughout various experimental tests than state-of-the-art methods, e.g., F-1 of 0.89 for our method vs. 0.84 for the best feature-based method.

We introduce a pattern mining framework that operates on semi-structured datasets and exploits the dichotomy between outcomes. Our approach takes advantage of constraint reasoning to find sequential patterns that occur frequently and exhibit desired properties. This allows the creation of novel pattern embeddings that are useful for knowledge extraction and predictive modeling. Finally, we present an application on customer intent prediction from digital clickstream data. Overall, we show that pattern embeddings play an integrator role between semi-structured data and machine learning models, improve the performance of the downstream task and retain interpretability.

Analyzing both temporal and spatial patterns for an accurate forecasting model for financial time series forecasting is a challenge due to the complex nature of temporal-spatial dynamics: time series from different locations often have distinct patterns; and for the same time series, patterns may vary as time goes by. Inspired by the successful applications of deep learning, we propose a new model to resolve the issues of forecasting household leverage in China. Our solution consists of multiple RNN-based layers and an attention layer: each RNN-based layer automatically learns the temporal pattern of a specific series with multivariate exogenous series, and then the attention layer learns the spatial correlative weight and obtains the global representations simultaneously. The results show that the new approach can capture the temporal-spatial dynamics of household leverage well and get more accurate and solid predictive results. More, the simulation also studies show that clustering and choosing correlative series are necessary to obtain accurate forecasting results.

Foundation model-enabled generative artificial intelligence facilitates the development and implementation of agents, which can leverage distinguished reasoning and language processing capabilities to takes a proactive, autonomous role to pursue users' goals. Nevertheless, there is a lack of systematic knowledge to guide practitioners in designing the agents considering challenges of goal-seeking (including generating instrumental goals and plans), such as hallucinations inherent in foundation models, explainability of reasoning process, complex accountability, etc. To address this issue, we have performed a systematic literature review to understand the state-of-the-art foundation model-based agents and the broader ecosystem. In this paper, we present a pattern catalogue consisting of 18 architectural patterns with analyses of the context, forces, and trade-offs as the outcomes from the previous literature review. We propose a decision model for selecting the patterns. The proposed catalogue can provide holistic guidance for the effective use of patterns, and support the architecture design of foundation model-based agents by facilitating goal-seeking and plan generation.

There is a rapidly growing number of large language models (LLMs) that users can query for a fee. We review the cost associated with querying popular LLM APIs, e.g. GPT-4, ChatGPT, J1-Jumbo, and find that these models have heterogeneous pricing structures, with fees that can differ by two orders of magnitude. In particular, using LLMs on large collections of queries and text can be expensive. Motivated by this, we outline and discuss three types of strategies that users can exploit to reduce the inference cost associated with using LLMs: 1) prompt adaptation, 2) LLM approximation, and 3) LLM cascade. As an example, we propose FrugalGPT, a simple yet flexible instantiation of LLM cascade which learns which combinations of LLMs to use for different queries in order to reduce cost and improve accuracy. Our experiments show that FrugalGPT can match the performance of the best individual LLM (e.g. GPT-4) with up to 98% cost reduction or improve the accuracy over GPT-4 by 4% with the same cost. The ideas and findings presented here lay a foundation for using LLMs sustainably and efficiently.

This paper presents prompt design techniques for software engineering, in the form of patterns, to solve common problems when using large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT to automate common software engineering activities, such as ensuring code is decoupled from third-party libraries and simulating a web application API before it is implemented. This paper provides two contributions to research on using LLMs for software engineering. First, it provides a catalog of patterns for software engineering that classifies patterns according to the types of problems they solve. Second, it explores several prompt patterns that have been applied to improve requirements elicitation, rapid prototyping, code quality, refactoring, and system design.

Frequent itemset mining is a popular data mining technique. Apriori, Eclat, and FP-Growth are among the most common algorithms for frequent itemset mining. Considerable research has been performed to compare the relative performance between these three algorithms, by evaluating the scalability of each algorithm as the dataset size increases. While scalability as data size increases is important, previous papers have not examined the performance impact of similarly sized datasets that contain different itemset characteristics. This paper explores the effects that two dataset characteristics can have on the performance of these three frequent itemset algorithms. To perform this empirical analysis, a dataset generator is created to measure the effects of frequent item density and the maximum transaction size on performance. The generated datasets contain the same number of rows. This provides some insight into dataset characteristics that are conducive to each algorithm. The results of this paper's research demonstrate Eclat and FP-Growth both handle increases in maximum transaction size and frequent itemset density considerably better than the Apriori algorithm. This paper explores the effects that two dataset characteristics can have on the performance of these three frequent itemset algorithms. To perform this empirical analysis, a dataset generator is created to measure the effects of frequent item density and the maximum transaction size on performance. The generated datasets contain the same number of rows. This provides some insight into dataset characteristics that are conducive to each algorithm. The results of this paper's research demonstrate Eclat and FP-Growth both handle increases in maximum transaction size and frequent itemset density considerably better than the Apriori algorithm.

A research division plays an important role of driving innovation in an organization. Drawing insights, following trends, keeping abreast of new research, and formulating strategies are increasingly becoming more challenging for both researchers and executives as the amount of information grows in both velocity and volume. In this paper we present a use case of how a corporate research community, IBM Research, utilizes Semantic Web technologies to induce a unified Knowledge Graph from both structured and textual data obtained by integrating various applications used by the community related to research projects, academic papers, datasets, achievements and recognition. In order to make the Knowledge Graph more accessible to application developers, we identified a set of common patterns for exploiting the induced knowledge and exposed them as APIs. Those patterns were born out of user research which identified the most valuable use cases or user pain points to be alleviated. We outline two distinct scenarios: recommendation and analytics for business use. We will discuss these scenarios in detail and provide an empirical evaluation on entity recommendation specifically. The methodology used and the lessons learned from this work can be applied to other organizations facing similar challenges.

Prompt engineering is an increasingly important skill set needed to converse effectively with large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT. Prompts are instructions given to an LLM to enforce rules, automate processes, and ensure specific qualities (and quantities) of generated output. Prompts are also a form of programming that can customize the outputs and interactions with an LLM. This paper describes a catalog of prompt engineering techniques presented in pattern form that have been applied to solve common problems when conversing with LLMs. Prompt patterns are a knowledge transfer method analogous to software patterns since they provide reusable solutions to common problems faced in a particular context, i.e., output generation and interaction when working with LLMs. This paper provides the following contributions to research on prompt engineering that apply LLMs to automate software development tasks. First, it provides a framework for documenting patterns for structuring prompts to solve a range of problems so that they can be adapted to different domains. Second, it presents a catalog of patterns that have been applied successfully to improve the outputs of LLM conversations. Third, it explains how prompts can be built from multiple patterns and illustrates prompt patterns that benefit from combination with other prompt patterns.

Large Language Models (LLM)-based systems, i.e. interconnected elements that include an LLM as a central component (e.g., conversational agents), are typically monolithic static architectures that rely on a single LLM for all user queries. However, they often require different preprocessing strategies, levels of reasoning, or knowledge. Generalist LLMs (i.e. GPT-4), trained on very large multi-topic corpora, can perform well in a variety of tasks. However, they require significant financial, energy, and hardware resources that may not be justified for basic tasks. This implies potentially investing in unnecessary costs for a given query. To overcome this problem, a routing mechanism routes user queries to the most suitable components, such as smaller LLMs or experts in specific topics. This approach may improve response quality while minimising costs. Routing can be expanded to other components of the conversational agent architecture, such as the selection of optimal embedding strategies. This paper explores key considerations for integrating routing into LLM-based systems, focusing on resource management, cost definition, and strategy selection. Our main contributions include a formalisation of the problem, a novel taxonomy of existing approaches emphasising relevance and resource efficiency, and a comparative analysis of these strategies in relation to industry practices. Finally, we identify critical challenges and directions for future research.

Recent work has demonstrated that pre-training in-domain language models can boost performance when adapting to a new domain. However, the costs associated with pre-training raise an important question: given a fixed budget, what steps should an NLP practitioner take to maximize performance? In this paper, we view domain adaptation with a constrained budget as a consumer choice problem, where the goal is to select an optimal combination of data annotation and pre-training. We measure annotation costs of three procedural text datasets, along with the pre-training costs of several in-domain language models. The utility of different combinations of pre-training and data annotation are evaluated under varying budget constraints to assess which combination strategy works best. We find that for small budgets, spending all funds on annotation leads to the best performance; once the budget becomes large enough, however, a combination of data annotation and in-domain pre-training yields better performance. Our experiments suggest task-specific data annotation should be part of an economical strategy when adapting an NLP model to a new domain.

With the widespread use of the internet, it has become increasingly crucial to extract specific information from vast amounts of academic articles efficiently. Data mining techniques are generally employed to solve this issue. However, data mining for academic articles is challenging since it requires automatically extracting specific patterns in complex and unstructured layout documents. Current data mining methods for academic articles employ rule-based(RB) or machine learning(ML) approaches. However, using rule-based methods incurs a high coding cost for complex typesetting articles. On the other hand, simply using machine learning methods requires annotation work for complex content types within the paper, which can be costly. Furthermore, only using machine learning can lead to cases where patterns easily recognized by rule-based methods are mistakenly extracted. To overcome these issues, from the perspective of analyzing the standard layout and typesetting used in the specified publication, we emphasize implementing specific methods for specific characteristics in academic articles. We have developed a novel Text Block Refinement Framework (TBRF), a machine learning and rule-based scheme hybrid. We used the well-known ACL proceeding articles as experimental data for the validation experiment. The experiment shows that our approach achieved over 95% classification accuracy and 90% detection accuracy for tables and figures.

The paper studies the linear model for Bitcoin price which includes regression features based on Bitcoin currency statistics, mining processes, Google search trends, Wikipedia pages visits. The pattern of deviation of regression model prediction from real prices is simpler comparing to price time series. It is assumed that this pattern can be predicted by an experienced expert. In such a way, using the combination of the regression model and expert correction, one can receive better results than with either regression model or expert opinion only. It is shown that Bayesian approach makes it possible to utilize the probabilistic approach using distributions with fat tails and take into account the outliers in Bitcoin price time series.

We introduce a novel neural network-based algorithm to compute optimal transport (OT) plans for general cost functionals. In contrast to common Euclidean costs, i.e., ell^1 or ell^2, such functionals provide more flexibility and allow using auxiliary information, such as class labels, to construct the required transport map. Existing methods for general costs are discrete and have limitations in practice, i.e. they do not provide an out-of-sample estimation. We address the challenge of designing a continuous OT approach for general costs that generalizes to new data points in high-dimensional spaces, such as images. Additionally, we provide the theoretical error analysis for our recovered transport plans. As an application, we construct a cost functional to map data distributions while preserving the class-wise structure.

The global trade in electronic and electrical goods is complicated by the challenge of identifying e-waste, which is often misclassified to evade regulations. Traditional analysis methods struggle to discern the underlying patterns of this illicit trade within vast datasets. This research proposes and validates a robust, data-driven framework to segment products and identify goods exhibiting an anomalous "waste signature" a trade pattern defined by a clear 'inverse price-volume'. The core of the framework is an Outlier-Aware Segmentation method, an iterative K-Means approach that first isolates extreme outliers to prevent data skewing and then re-clusters the remaining products to reveal subtle market segments. To quantify risk, a "Waste Score" is developed using a Logistic Regression model that identifies products whose trade signatures are statistically similar to scrap. The findings reveal a consistent four-tier market hierarchy in both Malaysian and global datasets. A key pattern emerged from a comparative analysis: Malaysia's market structure is defined by high-volume bulk commodities, whereas the global market is shaped by high-value capital goods, indicating a unique national specialization. The framework successfully flags finished goods, such as electric generators (HS 8502), that are traded like scrap, providing a targeted list for regulatory scrutiny.

Ecological systems are dynamic and policies to manage them need to respond to that variation. However, policy adjustments will sometimes be costly, which means that fine-tuning a policy to track variability in the environment very tightly will only sometimes be worthwhile. We use a classic fisheries management question -- how to manage a stochastically varying population using annually varying quotas in order to maximize profit -- to examine how costs of policy adjustment change optimal management recommendations. Costs of policy adjustment (here changes in fishing quotas through time) could take different forms. For example, these costs may respond to the size of the change being implemented, or there could be a fixed cost any time a quota change is made. We show how different forms of policy costs have contrasting implications for optimal policies. Though it is frequently assumed that costs to adjusting policies will dampen variation in the policy, we show that certain cost structures can actually increase variation through time. We further show that failing to account for adjustment costs has a consistently worse economic impact than would assuming these costs are present when they are not.