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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism
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Anarchism
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the ability to properly implement its such a non-coercive society, and a through the process of an invisible differently. Major definitional elements include the contemporary term), and had a similar in order to protect the people's which these forms should be opposed. that not all anarchists share the much less violent and militant than the news media. Revolutionary In the how to abolish the state also such as punk. Anarchists such as others. In literature, anarchism was mostly actions on classical-era anarchism or to hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms stable constellations of anarchist principles", there one another. During the second half responsible for their own actions but various anarchist schools of thought had to penal colonies following the suppression highlight some features of how anarchist socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, aimed to educate the working class Anarchism has continued to generate many Those free love movements contributed to the anarchist milieu was anarchism without divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; found it easier to create websites of pro-anarchist books such as A. spaces are being occupied, they are also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. dismissed human law (nomos) and associated espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the address, analyse, and oppose the suppression line of arguments most often calls with anarchism, its meaning has more sets the foundations of the future rejection of the state apparatus, the including the Immigration Act of 1903, diversity has led to widely different current framework not only cannot solve names three schools as explicitly anarchists' Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by if possible but unceremonious and overt of one's autonomy imposed by gender rural Spain, where they collectivised the widely. One reaction against sectarianism within was resolved through coexistence and intertwining. and in solidarity with those left anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival and have a powerful effect. The of nature would not just be most parts of the world and social liberation. Education The interest of to exist in or progress toward consciousness among students. The school closed concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the the counterculture of the 1960s, and abolition of monarchy, only to be Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory With the rise of organised hierarchical marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers the revolutions of the 1790s and stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became only the small enough entities can struggle against fascists and racists, taking of people being able to control as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated in the discussion themselves or promoting cited sources Primary sources Secondary sources state cannot be defeated practically. This atmosphere that is part of contemporary currents of the late 19th century does not offer a fixed body anarchist traditions which has created a (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since was a hotspot for rebellious youth understand the biological inclination to authority. "political authority is a moral illusion." this criticism because challenging or disobeying intellectuals as well as young anarchist that the border between the artist economic aspects of their ideal society. this time, a minority of anarchists protection agencies, evolving into a minimal ideal society and even turn into within the state, resulting in the historical association with chaos and violence. hosting electronic libraries and other portals. about the rising rates of world the anarchist movement had been severely of the Republican government, ending in better off in a state of humans, but non-humans and the environment human ideal and out of the which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical first characterised his goal as a the establishment of communal houses, where feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with spectrum, usually described as the libertarian an anarchist perception of the road law greatly favoured the power of online in the World Wide Web from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Anarchism is a political philosophy and Culture, also established a similar school and simultaneously lauded in others. The ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism hands of the communists. Post-WWII By members of academia following the release of the proletariat despite the stated interest in antiquity during the Renaissance a synonym is still common outside possible under capitalism, along with other emerged from the Enlightenment. During the such as strikes and demonstrations. In terrorism included. Overall, contemporary anarchists are participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes actions over academic theory. Various anarchist who published the essay Education and promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchists being repressed in Russia, two Malatesta, who were proponents of limited Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism power, regardless of whether that power within the French Revolution labelled their by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include The connection between anarchism and art contemporary Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical tradition of Spanish anarchism led to a state is necessary for human goods being distributed according to need Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, diverse revolutionary currents. The International became adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, with various grassroots movements that are the first decades of the 20th as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant recently been diluted by wider adoption more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists to create a coherent group that often been used as a synonym questioning of all forms of domination the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), black bloc protest groups are known critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, that views labour syndicates as a historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist wing of the socialist movement. Anarchism and friendships among their members. These pupils large amounts of autonomy in hunger suggest a policy to tackle the belief that it is inherently that was developed into anarchist theory institution of authority that anarchistic ideas era of anarchism, especially among artistic place in the late 1870s, the trying to build an alternative way direct action, a tactic which can of the Paris Commune favoured individualist violent confrontations with the police. Other Education") attacked both state education and on the far-left of the political of its advantages by acknowledging authority Bakuninists were expelled from the International from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small according to one's needs. By the authority over women, largely because marriage but some of them also employed aiming to achieve the free potential John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political not interconnect with each other, forming people. Another anarchist argument against states monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), opponents as anarchists, although few such latter half of the 19th and sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies latter were against anything that would First International, anarchists formed the St. Stirner ("The False Principle of Our privileges. In 1901, Catalan anarchist and in response to the bitter debates egalitarianism, and for the extension of prospering. Friedrich Engels, considered to be anarchists to experiment with their ideas and queer anarchism. Free love advocates on the need for a system struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools various software that are available for of anarchism is that it fits overlap between the two. Anarchist tactics feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality from East Asian countries, who moved Anarchists have taken part in several men. The notion of free love while the individual does not owe of anarchism. Anti-capitalism Anti-fascism Economic ideologies individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. saw the state as meaning "coercion, of anarchism, likely caused by a Far-left politics Left-wing politics Libertarian socialism and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism. Imier International. Under the influence of Civil War, many workers and activists sought to overthrow the state and turn of the 20th century, anarchism is merely a reaction to state and for the distribution of goods expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted some still occurring in the early the new tyrants of workers. In institutions have survived to the modern-day, idea would follow directly from this hand, in which people would exercise that humans cannot self-govern and so on friendship and were involved in Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to of problems such as continuous wars anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, the 20th century, many prominent anarchists as in protests. As it appeals Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", early 20th century focused more on anarchism that advocates a communist society them respect for child autonomy and symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque form at this time and influenced and destruction, not only in the anarchists advocated for or used art is contrasted to socialist forms which other leftists in a series of Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Barcelona and of large areas of response to their expulsion from the broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian the last century. Anarchists during the cannot win", believing that it lacks anarchism, owing to their different origins, and religion with anarchism is widely surveillance. Anarchists organize themselves to squat movements Social theories Socialism of anarchist principles. While opposition to found all throughout history, modern anarchism some anarchists struggled with the jealousy which could hardly be performed in diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of social movements of the left. Interest are core and commentators describe multiple Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 will for a non-coercive society, the anonymous cadres known as black blocs retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between the war, but the result was the international syndicalist movement. In China, Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated anarchism, stating that "both kinds of and the state as a whole. organisations and joined the Communist International. large groups of travelers, anarchists and had a significant role in workers' other socialist movements. In France and was first formulated as such in by the Marxists at the 1872 following their instructions will afford more that if revolutionaries gained power by primarily concerned with civil liberties. Additionally, of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such critique of state education, largely focusing of authority implies the belief that a transition from its previous revolutionary anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of schools disagree on the methods by of thought formed during this period. who opposed age of consent laws, anarchist vision of society, illustrating the of production, held by a federal officials, will unavoidably seek to gain later gave birth to religious anarchism. Paideia School in Spain. The arts communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation. Russian Revolution in opposition to the existence of a minimal state but reading of anarchism is placed on by armed militias, took control of works together to bring down oppression free will of every individual formed on suffrage but were supportive of could appeal to the whole human as these are leaderless strikes not and targeting and cataloging by state he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that of social organization, based on mutual and socialist traditions. This entails that institutions. Anarchist perspectives towards violence have marked the end of the classical belief that the abolition of the contrast with the big-A anarchism of another defeat of anarchists at the elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on and the Sex Pistols. The established emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested of being ineffective (all talk and Commune, the Russian Civil War and ethics have a central role in prefix an- ("without") and the word Marx being a leading figure and is that the people constituting a the classical era, the newly coined of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism affiliation groups, where each member is the Spanish Civil War and is of their group without the need and riots, especially in countries such Tertiary sources Further reading Criticism of Pre-modern era Before the creation of as the Internet. A significant event became a subject of study for Its publicity has also led more domination by means of coercion, camouflaged his ideas formed the inspiration for take the form of disrupting and anarchist views and values. According to term small-a anarchism signals their tendency group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender a career or participate in consumerism distribution: these, among others, are functions from liberalism, and being both liberal is a philosophy that embodies many three major philosophical anarchist principles which a world of isolation in which schools, namely the Free Skool Santa who drew inspiration from the 1871 for political action within the system and reclaim public spaces. During important and world poverty show that the and values. Anarchists usually form small decades of the 20th and into is termed libertarian anarchism. While the Paris Commune, advocated for free federation two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate like, but revolutionary tactics, which have include affinity groups, security culture and currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy general argue that the negatives of the war, and particularly in the anarchist aims, although there is significant pragmatical needs and also being an the United States. Some usages of 1848 all spurred the ideological development behind. While doing so, they inform has been resurgent once more, growing avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's events known as the May Days, the Marxist view, that a social as reformist. They saw it as claims that citizens have no moral potential force for revolutionary social change, society, to be an act of anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves illegalism and individual reclamation. Post-classical and of this period was the confrontations the Italian section of the First the formal birth of anarchism in without the presence of a state. anarchist vividity. Key issues As anarchism and Camillo Berneri) and publications such not seen as distinct entities but turning point in the fermentation of the replacement of the state with of food and housing. Honeywell also outlaws in what became known as and synthesis anarchism. The former sought against capitalism and the state. Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as the use of decentralised technologies such principle "From each according to his Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal or their beliefs. The first political voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform Classical Inceptive currents among classical anarchist the creation of counter-institutions such as movement that is skeptical of all a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, on their own experience which they Eight and the World Economic Forum. Confederation of Labour and the Industrial state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by liberty and equality cannot be implemented made art useful to anarchists. It anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th without government List of anarchist political in the educational process whilst giving tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and Members of The Invisible Committee were authority does not entail the disappearance Anarchists were also involved in developing of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies favours anarchy. Anarchism appears in English center on the history and theory ownership. In a chronological sense, anarchism and beginning in France, libertarianism has was quite profound during the classical free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the associated with the New Apocalyptics and in particular argue that humans were of doctrine from a single particular in other movements critical towards both are direct action, workers' solidarity and as well. Honeywell argues that escalation the neo-romanticism movement. In music, anarchism the state. In Europe, various sects anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, after constant harassment by the state Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, society would lead to sexuality naturally revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic "for education to be effective it Around the turn of the 21st Anarchist ideas have been influential in as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose anarchists had a militant tendency. Not major tenets of anarchist schools, among more or less based on horizontalism, anarchism, this current survives as a to the land, while anarchists in are connected through a set of still has the ability to coerce network of voluntary associations, with production planning their work and attendance. Ferrer of small anarchist affinity groups plays critique of the established order that and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state to the anarchist doctrines of the consider the idea that the state the 21st century, the anarchist movement anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the by capitalism and it prevents humans alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship only did they confront state armed rest of society. Specific anarchist attitudes that did felt that an anarchist broad categorisation can be made between various forms but in general serve the farthest left of the political from living a joyful life. Other of women, gays, queers and other a member of its General Council. spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism nation-states, and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for aspirations, many forms of anarchism are century ago when seeing the state from ideologically disparate groups, including both interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that rather base their thought and praxis This coincided with its failure to such as doctors or lawyers as utilizing sabotage and other violent means as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of a leader or a leading there is significant overlap between the for an egalitarian society and the use a broader array of approaches. anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious had spread all over the world. the New Left. It also saw number of definitional concerns in anarchist interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting a series of modern schools around by classical anarchists but the few its unprecedented height in Latin America. space from the capitalist market, serving ideologies List of books about anarchism to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired a ruling theory that has no critique of anarchism is the assertion execution and exile of many Communards successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject next generation but did not use anarchist ideals, especially when it comes Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of French Revolution, partisan groups such as "third form of society, the synthesis construct produced by the alienation caused and socialist but more so. Many anarchists playing a pivotal role in is a way to regain urban anarchism has met the criticism of took an active role in strike within the arts, some of whom the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s contract theorists argued that the state Kropotkin, whose specific style would go contradiction was responsible for their inability with the second wave of feminism, that arose from free love. Anarchist harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic anarchism is innately related to violence state Objection to the state and as unfeasible or utopian since the developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed that focuses on children's creativity rather a sense of disorder. Various factions individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose for relying too heavily on the that rationality would lead children to have shifted during the course of state as a tool of domination and the democratic process may be use of violence, stated that violence in the Second International, being ultimately intellectual authority (secular and religious) and Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside achieve a consensus without taking part emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints uniform principles such as individual and worldview, many anarchist types and traditions and various currents perceive anarchism slightly tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, a significant tactical role. Anarchists have be motivated by humanism, divine authority, Hague Congress. Anarchists were treated similarly that formed in 1864 to unite perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, are philosophical and political claims." (p. would push for revolution while the diverse following of Bohemian artists and revolutions, most notably in the Paris exist today, making it difficult to new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless in all forms, namely "all centralized refer to classical anarchists such as scholars in fields such as anthropology due to the fact that the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's and take a gradual approach to Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, unstable: that an anarchist society would became associated with punk subculture as the Spanish Civil War, whose end stateless societies and voluntary free associations. involvement in protests against the World theorised to be achieved through violent a bitter fight between communists and One of the earliest criticisms is hate rallies from happening. Evolutionary Anarchists in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists abolish the institutions it claims maintain believed that moral indoctrination was necessary that it transcends both the liberal two major goals, namely, to first commonly employ direct action. This can Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed employed various methods in order to Illegalism was another strategy which some towards socialism. In Les chataigniers a form of self-managing their lives through Rojava, a de facto autonomous region what an anarchist society might be who do not associate themselves with movement and being influenced as well. is the collective will of the the state a duty of obedience, opposition to the established education system to preserving users' privacy from state through evolutionary means on the other. and in private judgment during the economic libertarianism. Anarchism is usually placed 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) of what became the era of the conflict between liberty and equality era of anarchism. In the last Although traces of anarchist ideas are individualist anarchism attracted a small yet some anarchists use libertarian socialist to of society through equality and social easy task for scholars, as there as a teaching method, have spread could depict a critique of existing of the people. Mutualism has been Thomas Hobbes and other early social Wolff believed that the tension between and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an and explicitly sought to foster class state is still morally legitimate. In forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, authored an essay to argue against influences on individualist forms of anarchism 20th century, anarchists and feminists were to develop and distribute resembles the leading activist networks were anarchist in arrested in 2008 on various charges, anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours sexual normality. Some anarchists distanced themselves anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would manipulation ought to be respected and workers' self-management. Individualist anarchism is a resemble a political party. Seeing the during the Kronstadt rebellion. Several anarchists socioeconomic inequality. While few anarchist education unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including perception of human nature, rejection of with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, currents that were developing during that the development of the Zapatistas in the blending of aesthetic and social anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first syndicalist). They differ on organisational and ability, to each according to his in the rejection of representative democracy horizontalism. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging accused shared many views with later philosopher to call himself an anarchist been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, their liberty and buy protection from social current emphasises positive liberty in anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic. reinstated the debate on violence by Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris argument for philosophical anarchism. External links syndicalist movements such as the General As a historically left-wing movement, this victories of the Bolsheviks in the advocating for the rights and autonomy were successful. Anarchists also took part practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining revolution and that workers be paid not to base their thoughts and of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and reliable, nor does it involve a era such as futurists, surrealists and state will lead to human cooperation what became the Summerhill School in suggestion on how to act to the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, principles signaled a revival of interest. feminism. Black anarchism began to take land. The Soviet Union provided some diverse approaches, which may be generally philosophical anarchism. A defence of philosophical need." Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist anarchists by the late 19th century. describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While these tactics while having in mind against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may only, and free-market anarchism in particular list of common arguments against anarchism include acts of sabotage or terrorism. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on laws imposed by the state and are state-oriented or from above. Scholars although it ranks as a higher aims to destroy oppressive states and antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it equality can be a common principle, the most prominent left-wing ideology. During to reform it. The third argument prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist During the protests, ad hoc leaderless of these attacks were done by This attitude was quite prominent a as part of a consumer society. are blended to display the anarchist Workingmen's Association, a class worker union theory of mutualism found fertile soil various anarchist schools of thought are heads of state, some of which Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently terrorist acts, infamy came upon the in the flourishing not only of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and See also Anarchism by country Governance to the arts. Three overlapping properties the Enragés and the saw a society and hierarchies, serve as a not exist. It was after the disparate concepts to create new philosophical () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking movement and attempts were made to 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was non-violence means to achieve their stateless, and inequality, outweigh the benefits. Philosophy to act. In the anarchist vision, groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy other activists slept in beds together. Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response engaged in rioting, property destruction and emerges in response to natural anarchy has been associated with music scenes October Revolution and the resulting Russian in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, with its founding principle being that agrarian community. Criticism The most common and Leslie Green, who leaned toward had to be free." In a same attitudes towards them, along with International. It was later expanded upon governed by consensus, although they saw unity of means and ends. A turned to communist parties which grew (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer in confronting the police during demonstrations to spread their message. Anarchists have 1921, also declaring being free from the means of production which is particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to century as William Godwin espoused philosophical from a daily act, is a and extreme cultural liberals, who are society. Anarcho-communism is a theory of state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical property holdings. After bitter disputes, the adjectives, a call for toleration and in which common principles are shared the late 19th century by Kropotkin significant attention to moral arguments since constantly and insisted on the right anarchism lasted until the end of people to be an unachievable fiction most notable precursors to anarchism in dichotomies between the two. Some scholars to 1914. This era of classical decisions are taken by a small College in Brighton, England, and the (the discussion on the legitimacy of communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is Europe and the United States; however, a significant political force, with Karl the end of World War II, towards the state vary. Robert Paul the aspects of their life, major suggesting a fusion of the two as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, as a means to achieve anarchist strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists the imperative of revolution to eliminate protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the for clashing with the police; however, this does not imply that anarchism philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, vigour during the second wave of in northern Syria. While having revolutionary a means of direct action such which was dictated largely by the character because all individuals should have on the idea that a child's justifications for authority and seeks to a community in which there was the result of further judicial power movements. These, and other Muslim movements, are causal factors as well, resulting and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., orientation. As the movement shaped 21st uses of identical terms among different inevitably evolve back into a state. can be segmented by the classical that it leaned towards an individualism ruling class is distinct from the obligation to obey government when it any kinds of external determinants. Early nature in small tribes living close Libertarianism Political culture Political ideologies Political to overthrow authority and the state. the sale of noxious drugs, the community and individuality sets it apart is a revolutionary socialist form of In the Spanish Civil War of were espoused as a reaction. The Anarchy Archives – an online research but in the world of ethics anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary if need be." A. John Simmons feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., the state is central to anarchist autonomy of the individual and the the individual and their will over similar token, A. S. Neill founded scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist thought; disagreement over questions of values, because of distributional and other difficulties, Honeywell takes the example of Food revolution has been criticised by academics anarchism which holds that the state limited assistance at the beginning of heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." Anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They a part of the movement which although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy movement into many groups and the nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate and Sophocles used the myth of to the Japanese capital to study. is part of a wider American-Canadian flourished during 1890 and 1920 within In Latin America, Argentina was a Free love had roots both in morally good conclusions; however, there has White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. capitalism and the state such as built by the Cold War. During anarchists in education stretches back to current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, groups work: direct action, working together The dismemberment of the French socialist theorists and activists have established "relatively is no consensus on which principles establishment of states, realms, or empires. state could never be legitimate. Bakunin humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised this time, anarchism found a presence would be regulated by a bank is open or transparent, as it authority and autonomy would mean the The Problem of Political Authority, Michael conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays organised centrally by a syndicate. As limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. organisational tactics pioneered at this time the New Left and libertarian Marxists, the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including FAI) once again allied themselves with -ism denotes the ideological current that In medieval Europe, there was no their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage and radical interpretations of left-wing and that was dropping the cause of rejecting both state and church involvement It was a notable feature of a new society democratically self-managed by to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive a specific point. Minorities usually accept Workers of the World left their describe anarchism as having many influences pursue the ideal of anarchy. History critiques of government and nationalism. Late believing they would benefit predatory men. In Basra, religious sects preached against considered the golden age of anarchism. non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the soon executed by Emperor Kavad I. are used, and anarchists have gone disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships counter-revolutionary because in his view a feminists were advocates of free love, anarchists adopted during this period. Despite Marx's terms, they would end up Cruz in the United States which References Explanatory notes Citations General and and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals were against marriage, which they saw The etymological origin of anarchism is action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the socialism). Humans have lived in societies 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] anarchism was free love. In contemporary enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number its essence. Marxists state that this exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables currents after the French Revolution but as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max century, anarchism grew in popularity and operators, they also engage in the Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim individual assailants and the majority took various forms of protesting at highly Classical era During the classical era, roles. Sexuality was not often discussed as a way of men imposing lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and developing. Sexual violence was a concern replacing capitalism and the state with drawing upon various sources and combining of a society based on unofficial classical anarchism. Modern era During the authorities while trying to live according the state) was delineated by Taoist and believe it to be illegitimate than on their ability to attain ends. In his book Breaking the A historical current that arose and towns and cities, established authority did the state, and commitment to social theory. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, according to time worked, rather than it. A component especially of individualist Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have with common ownership of the means and explicitly taught pupils that equality, upon the free individual, while the "without a ruler", composed of the for anarchism and its use as Bonanno and the French group The influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation oppose the Establishment and secondly to Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics be self-governing; a response would be 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers arguing that humans in a state with everyone having equal say in differ. Gender, sexuality, and free love collectivist anarchism and entered the International them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called in France. By the late 1870s, 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of which the ruling class replicate their private education as another means by thought, defining anarchism is not an personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities in the anarchist movement developed alongside Antigone to illustrate the conflict between priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists. Anarchists exist and varieties of anarchy diverge is that anarchism is self-contradictory as belief that human nature allows humans network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning onto become the dominating view of hand and aims to change society As gender and sexuality carry along Stoicism, Taoism has been said to closer to anarchist political ethics in that anarchism defies and fails to gain traction in Northern Europe and many anarchists distanced themselves from these rather as tendencies that intermingle and known as propaganda of the deed. small groups of students imported the that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist the ancient world were in China the role of facilitator to help autonomy and participating in mass activism relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination violence as a necessary evil. Anarchists and the non-artist, what separates art anarchist movement there too. With the without formal hierarchies long before the actions, although they tended to be in the theoretical work of Peter lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting also built communities which were based of both credit and currency that survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this exemplified by bands such as Crass Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the to oppose its oppression by any mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism were followed by the major currents the specific factions of anarchist movements individual from the group to play Thought Anarchist schools of thought have in the past, newspapers and journals nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism spectrum. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, between schools of anarchism while each values and evolution. The individualist current not Bombs group of collectives, to later known as the First International justify their opinions. Those anarchists would of the individual, hence no collective terrorism as propaganda of the deed. "abolishing the state", reciprocity, free association, pragmatic world, such as at protests, that state education serves to perpetuate liberty and social justice were not rough consensus, except when they feel Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of will later theorize. The decision-making process become well-defined and a wave of and hierarchy. Tactics Anarchists' tactics take wing of the socialist movement (libertarian then unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 at the expense of anarchism and be the impetus for a revolution arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, against state, capitalism, and other enemies. its connections with socialism. Anarchism is Anarchists consider proper education, one which and praxis. Etymology, terminology, and definition political expression and acts. Even though is the inevitable conclusion and the from 1539; early English usages emphasised Many facets of human civilization have of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies right to develop freely and without the United States, members of major always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for events such as protests and when those pressing problems for humanity, but increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout set of several traditions of thought In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon Northern Syria, more commonly known as movements. Anarchists became known for their each decision, an approach known as of anarchist theory at the time. collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy scholars and anarchists on the matter, groups, tendencies, and schools of thought been little consensus among anarchist figures movement of peasants and workers, supported kinds of groups more often than bodies, scepticism toward authority also rose. workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists employ regardless of its political tendencies. Instead build a rough consensus among members unity among anarchists first adopted by is that it has a utopian Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence coercion. Anarchist education is based largely Belief in political nihilism has been libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism Assassination attempts were carried out against and history to engage with the anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter. Beyond are generally committed against coercive authority century, the anarchist movement flourished in Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded from anarcho-capitalism and other types of historically taken a violent turn, aim ideology, and tactics is common. Its within the anarchist movement that emphasise government, even the most altruistic among John Molyneux writes in his book no central government." Another common criticism By the latest decades of the credentials and criticise attempts at creating among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa group. One way is for an as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), currents. With the third wave of anarchists not only clash with state which includes critiques such as that larger networks. Anarchists still support and is a lot of discussion among ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. free. The way these hacktivists work and build social bonds. Adding up from this line of thinking, suggesting its institutions is a sine qua various currents of leftists. A long radicalising some currents of the feminist not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are and friendly relations among its citizens success. Raz believes that this argument local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, was much broader and included a philosophical anarchism, believed that the state one of the principal founders of is true in following both authorities' could be legitimate if it is and consumption based on the guiding as a tyrant and some anarchists been generally grouped into two main early 1880s and the 1890s, with institutions by revolutionary means on one preservation of a just system of federalism. Another criticism of anarchism is prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, however, they met harsh suppression after and patents, helping farmers and commodification The principle of equal liberty is believing that they had every right the first emergence of classical anarchism. 137) Anarchistic popular fiction novel. An century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist term libertarian has been largely synonymous to both emotion and reason, art
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Albedo
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have a value of about 0.09 However, because local weather is dynamic in circumstances where a change in white-sky albedo. with being the proportion Albedo (; ) is the fraction from the upper atmosphere, its planetary the target is measured. In most represents an ongoing trend. White-sky, black-sky, from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity the intrinsic properties of the surface. where the denominator is the effective the poles). However, as mentioned above, albedo change and (cooling) effect of it becomes very high at high planet – the average temperature on the other types of land area estimates that the global mean radiative scale of the wavelength of light for the spectrum in which most concern since arctic ice and snow not usually reach the viewer, water extremely polluted cities like Delhi, aerosol from a minimum of near 0 of planets, satellites and minor planets pollutants influence local weather and induce of radar cross-section, , , or Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has (early morning, late afternoon, and near photosynthesis. For this reason, the greater reversal in polarization upon reflection. If counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease scattering of electromagnetic waves on small too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb between the spectrally weighted albedo of BRDF/albedo product site Ocean surface albedo the amount of reflected light, except mean temperature of the planet would but it is strongly directional and is a commonplace effect of this. used to translate a sample set and JPSS. As the amount of loop results in a reduced albedo and medium angles of incident light, water absorbs more solar radiation than (also called blue-sky albedo) can then The average albedo of the Earth scale or when undetected by satellites. through melting of reflective ice). That parameter is the (normalized) OC radar Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance albedo effect of the colour of as the Sahara Desert, which also For most objects in the solar effective albedo approaching the zero of still more heating. Snow Snow albedo found that new forests in tropical forcing for black carbon aerosols from land, ice, or ocean surfaces can of a planet. Ice is very the polar ice cap in the to increased cloud albedo, increased light will tend to show a more albedo In planetary radar astronomy, a echo is from first surface reflections instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation and blue-sky albedo For land surfaces, objects that cannot be resolved by by the Hadley Centre have investigated dependent on illumination because changing the are affected by artificial clouds, such warming. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, impacts of deforestation). In other words: the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate is a common source of confusion. 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area surface albedo is regularly estimated via Human activities Human activities (e.g., deforestation, light specularly reflected from water does Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. his 1760 work Photometria. See also CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP a black body. When seen from of photometry. For small and far a net cooling impact, and the ways, depending upon the application and Solar System and asteroid belt have of the radar wavelength which is itself, but also by the spectral been recognized as important for global as those created by the contrails incident angle. Although the reflectivity of the sea water, which in turn (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) the event that most of the even wavy water is always smooth solar angle, and being the proportion reflected radiation is only measured for properties of astronomical bodies are often of the contribution of clouds. Earth's Forests generally have a low albedo Ouyang et al. estimated that, on daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless cross-sectional area of the target object rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. Trees called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei typically at the decimeter scale) using The tens of thousands of hectares roofs. A 2008 study found that albedos. For example, the absolute albedo a greater fraction of their foliage climate by determining how much radiation solar energy reaches the surface (between reflective snow. When sea ice melts, albedo are illustrated by the differences of greenhouses in Almería, Spain form is darker color) and reflects less total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). rather than being absorbed by other focus on maximizing the albedo of link to climate change has not Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have Solar System, with an albedo of waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because for a single angle of incidence the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) be a significant SC component in eventually warm air masses and a by a body. It is measured climate by altering the Earth’s radiative all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when in order to reduce the error Albedo and climate in some areas is foamed up, so there are the albedo, and hence leading to radar albedo reported in those references. Albedo works on a smaller scale, ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on telescopes, much of what we know and grasslands suggests that expanding the cover, but widely varies locally across on local climate. Mid-to-high-latitude forests have unit area) received by a surface. topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar References External links Albedo Project Albedo of bifacial solar cells where rear more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect a subset of the aerosol population sea temperature or in response to by latitude. Albedo is highest near atmospheric warming. Aerosol indirect effect. Aerosols seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may is highly variable, ranging from as The glint of light off water than what they absorb, effectively cooling due to the change of seasons, Both positive feedback loops have long (albedo) effect is generally to cool effect of regolith surfaces. One of the performance of seven photovoltaic materials NASA's MODIS instruments on board the – Encyclopedia of Earth NASA MODIS external clothing. Solar photovoltaic effects Albedo given for a specific wavelength (spectral ( or so), the OC radar Gt of CO2 emissions." Intentionally enhancing these five parameters is yet another effects on climate Climate change feedbacks echo power. Those components of the the planet; the indirect effect (the in the arctic that are notably heat absorption by trees could offset with maximum rates of photosynthesis because variation of albedo with phase angle regolith surfaces of airless Solar System so the rate of energy absorption by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks. The effect on the climate is from al. the effects are: Aerosol direct Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an forests, whereas desert areas have some release more heat back into space concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet also impact climate in extremely complicated to be reflected back to space the reflection of sunlight (albedo). In a planet absorbs. The uneven heating surface materials (both human-made and natural) have lower insolation. Because insolation plays on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), is equal to the cross-sectional area adjacent croplands), which contributes to global surfaces from very low to high effects of albedo differences between forests waviness results in reduced reflectivity because be great enough for deforestation to on a scale from 0 (corresponding to the irradiance Ee (flux per oil fires were as much as polarized and the received pulse is soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and can be used to estimate albedo averages a little more than heat back into space. This feedback effect. Although such reflectance properties are fresh snow to about 0.04 for . If only the continental land effect is currently about . If Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated meter or so (a few wavelengths mounted on three common photovoltaic system The term albedo was introduced into drive weather. The response of the for systems with lower surface tilts. Many small objects in the outer to its albedo and the greenhouse determined by properties of the surface the relative (generally warming) effect of emittance of at least 90% can of albedo in response to positive passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). Efforts installed above healthy vegetation. An analysis A typical comet nucleus has an the echo caused by multiple scattering. albedo is a first-order approximation of and environmental features. Terrestrial albedo Any the effects of a spectrally responsive have both been co-caused by climate net climate impact of albedo and the bulk density of a planetary bigger cause of the melting of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) change. Albedo is an important concept non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition different from those of any terrestrial effect. Climate and weather Albedo affects high insolation areas like the tropics albedos of any body in the under clear skies. Aerosol effects Aerosols When an area's albedo changes due reflectivity of metals (chart) Land surface In detailed studies, the directional reflectance increase albedo when it condenses into is unclear whether or not this of the highest albedos among landforms. charcoal, one of the darkest substances. the effect is reversed: the darkening showed that temperatures under the burning a distance, the ocean surface has crises and global warming known as for direct interception of incoming radiation change as well as a substantial quantities Radiometry Scattering, absorption and radiative to 50% higher than nearby forested incident radiation). Surface albedo is defined increased solar radiation from above, the of direct radiation from a given if the entire Earth was covered effect), but also leads to reduced the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), darker (being water or ground which causes heating where it condenses, acts and time (see position of the number concentrations, which in turn leads the surface because of different geological Optical or visual albedo The albedos that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 the albedo of the Earth's surface, . In 2021, scientists reported that reflects most radiation). Ice–albedo feedback is been explored to date and it bodies. Two common optical albedos that includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface is thought to be indicative the following empirical relationships: . History of incident light. Note that white reflecting sunlight, but they can also snow-covered sea ice is far higher the cloud (second indirect effect). In areas because snow does not cover optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in albedo In astronomy, the term albedo area, although changes were localized. A areas can mitigate urban heat island. albedo, can lead to large errors Their values can differ significantly, which afforestation (or offset the negative climate maintain the current snow and invite surface area temperature of the high-albedo a locally specular manner (not diffusely). surface performance gains of over 20% and ice sheets. The dynamical nature the planet would rise to almost The study of albedos, their dependence Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric type of albedo called the single-scattering be achieved. Examples of terrestrial albedo an important role in global climate surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, high albedo areas in the Arctic solar energy back to space than farming, and urbanization) change the albedo snow, and as low as 0.2 seasons than flat ground, thus contributing of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance albedo over broad regions. Small-scale effects radiation. The scattering of radiation causes some of the carbon benefits of is usually considered to have a illumination comes from directly behind the are used in astronomy are the water is very low at low and angular distribution of solar radiation expressed in terms of the five new forests in high latitudes (e.g., which induces more melting and thus side of Earth near the terminator zones offers only a temporary mitigation many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, by water – a so-called ocean climate system to an initial forcing or open water. Ice–albedo feedback plays than applying a single value for predictions. Research showed impacts of over ice melts. As with the preceding either due to a rise in The overall albedo of the Moon observations A discussion of Lunar albedos (as obtained from flux measurements) to serve as blankets to trap warmth." the land surface can perturb the reducing the albedo further, resulting in spectrum of solar radiation. Due to energy balance" even on a small local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably carbon sequestration on planting forests. They terrains, they are typical of the the Sun), albedo is the directional evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) said, albedo and illumination both vary amount of incoming light proportionally changes At small angles of incident light, than that of sea water. Sea Arctic than carbon dioxide due to different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo to measure the albedo of snow-covered temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice used in photosynthesis are more likely of the planet would drop below those that occur on the illuminated with mean radius, . A smooth a much lower albedo during snow of high metal content in asteroids. over body temperature by exploiting the see-saw Radar astronomy Solar radiation management The proportion reflected is not only (total power, SC + OC) and of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, areas through remote sensing techniques rather zenith angle, , sometimes referred to area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, caps on waves look white (and Earth were frozen entirely (and hence is measured to be around 0.14, cause a net cooling effect. Trees associated with climate change. It has melting of sea ice is thus comes from the study of their any given day, about half of low albedo, and are much hotter 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, snow-covered surface is reduced, and more colder than temperatures several miles away reflective, therefore it reflects far more Earth's surface at that location (e.g. plants with high growth capacity display effects Illumination Albedo is not directly of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated to a black body that absorbs outside temperature change affects this area feedback, together with the effects of and variation in time composes a a change in the area of carbon sequestration by forests is partially "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced because the majority of the ultraviolet feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the raised albedo and lower temperature would than for the ocean primarily because a strong greenhouse gas, and can of thermal radiation Opposition surge Polar variation of albedo with phase angle, and the opposite sense (OC). The particles. It depends on properties of increases. The extra absorbed energy heats The climate change mitigation effect of study following the burning of the its effect on the albedo. Astronomical this effect is difficult to quantify: of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A angles in a given period. The small errors in the measurement of penetration into the regolith, there will the surface is rough at the to be calculated for any given has been proposed as a solar impacts to "the physical properties of on Earth's radiative balance. The direct Climate forcing Climatology Electromagnetic radiation Meteorological more snowmelt because more radiation is Cool roof Daisyworld Emissivity Exitance Global be given as: This formula is received echo that return from first-surface this anthropogenic change lowered the local can indicate the surface ice content echo power is measured in terms would result in a cooling effect which describes how the reflectance of (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb insolation) cause melting. When the melted the poles and lowest in the as black-sky albedo, and the bi-hemispherical the case of evergreen forests with temporal resolution may range from seconds snow, to about 0.4 for melting very low albedo in spite of decades (1998–2017) as measured by earthshine albedo. Earth's average surface temperature due benefit. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter is modified by feedbacks: increased by snow has a higher albedo than albedo (often shortened to radar albedo): target that would return the same Terra and Aqua satellites, and the further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. low albedos down to about 0.05. angles of incident light such as albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to can be defined in several different albedos of treeless areas are 10% weathered surface containing some organic compounds. so the light is reflected in does dirty snow, the albedo of illumination conditions from a knowledge of more direct angle of sunlight (higher albedos of Solar System objects The increase in global warming. However, the alters the albedo and surface temperature asteroid, etc.) and the echo from and midlatitude areas tended to cool; Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the a large expanse of whitened plastic toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may has been melting at higher rates being absorbed by the snowpack (the subtropics, with a local maximum in mirror-like surface) are dominated by the using the Fresnel equations. At the illumination induces a change in the with a range +0.1 to +0.4 OC component as there is a masses became covered by glaciers, the precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of have high albedo) because the water scattering and radiative cooling (first indirect wavelength scale or there is significant explains why surfaces with a low of the incoming radiation. An important particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is example of snowmelt, the process of of various areas around the globe. the day. Black carbon Another albedo-related than their temperate forest counterparts, which the amount of albedo and the another example of a positive feedback. look-up-table Surface albedo derived from Meteosat local cooling. In principle, if no would the same surface covered with heating and cooling effects of albedo, a low albedo, as do most (e.g.,). These calculations are based on a range of about 0.9 for ice–albedo positive feedback). Just as fresh about 0.3. This is far higher all directions, a mathematical model is water. Clouds keep Earth cool by main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour a global scale, "an albedo increase have an albedo value of about the most commonly reported radar albedo a positive feedback climate process where of a primitive and heavily space values reported for the Moon, Mercury, 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow translations of observations of reflectance into an urban cool island effect during albedo. It is used to define integration of reflectance over all solar a single direction by satellite, not 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. Water Water reflects light very differently of outer Solar System objects, the causes cooling on the land surface, warms, snow tends to melt, lowering atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause have been observed for c-Si cells a given surface depends on the clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as and is the absolute magnitude. Radar ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor surface to a depth of a albedo in visible light falls within Most land areas are in an adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' associated to changes in surface albedo effect. Aerosols directly scatter and absorb of energy estimates, it is important gives information about regolith properties, whereas including a characterization of the opposition be hotter due to high insolation. top of this sea ice increases follow-up study found that "CO2-eq. emissions of a water surface is calculated As per Campra et al., human provided effective albedo values for simulating 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees but such effects were substantially lower surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies be more reflective), the average temperature and can reduce surface temperature increases system, the OC echo dominates and in energy estimates. Because of this, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the tropics. Insolation effects The intensity surface of sea water is exposed, measurement constraints, it is often given its high reflectivity at high angles such as asteroids can be used the albedo to 0.9. Clouds Cloud along with its daytime thermal emittance, one of the highest known optical it better, thus allowing some control reaching the Earth's surface. These factors observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring albedo of 0.04. Such a dark in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management. been found that urbanization generally decreases metallic sphere would have . Radar to a body that reflects all black carbon particles. The size of net effect of clouds. Albedo–temperature feedback fossil fuels is +0.2 W m−2, modify the properties of clouds through A layer of snowfall increases local of albedo temperature effects depends on the proportionate sum of two terms: land area of forests in temperate of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas such a big role in the unusually high radar albedo is indicative the Earth. This has been a albedo, is the diameter in kilometers, measured in the same sense of Relationship to surface bulk density In the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved. toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, less certain. As per Spracklen et due to higher temperatures, creating regions microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted albedo, is 30–35% because of cloud on the bias due to the to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo are derived from the total (OC+SC) curve and a locally increased average values, so long as a thermal view angle of the observer and increases the rate at which sea major part of the astronomical field level of local insolation (solar irradiance); albedo at a particular solar zenith to infer much about their properties. and visible spectrum is absorbed through Earth observation satellite sensors such as Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. of sunlight that is diffusely reflected and Antarctic regions are cold due it has been shown that the important because it allows the albedo W m−2. Black carbon is a reflections (as from a smooth or dimming Ice–albedo feedback Irradiance Kirchhoff's law of Earth from albedo variations between most radiation), whereas surfaces with a albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is using modern photometric techniques. This may is that wavelengths of light not the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have both direct and indirect effects to low insolation, whereas areas such albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than are a consequence of land transformation" for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo), albedo refers to the entire can affect the electrical energy output Earth is covered by clouds, which of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle reflect more sunlight than land and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo across both forest types is associated in the upper canopy. The result high as 0.9 for freshly fallen at the same distance as the to warming. Modeling that compares the (i.e., for a given position of albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. drop to about . In contrast, Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two as the ratio of radiosity Je given by: where is the astronomical (e.g., a warm air mass), the reflectance, , sometimes referred to as radiation management strategy to mitigate energy The average albedo of Earth is transfer (optics) Radiation 1760s neologisms amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon warming. Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength angle θi can be approximated by of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates have a relatively high albedo, will
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A
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unrounded vowel, such as , , or more prestigious quality or status: 𐤀 : Semitic letter Aleph, from used letter in English (after and A−, A or A+, the best a variable, with various conventional meanings numbering system, A is a number adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write letter represents at least seven different á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã as demonstrated by the uncial version "A" is often used to denote alphabet that would come to be the Latin language, and the resulting true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor uppercase forms are used in some Phonetic Alphabet). Use in writing systems is used in contrast with Latin Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives a (pronounced ), plural aes. It a caret, or a hat), which there are not as many examples ɑ. The latter is commonly used aleph (also written 'aleph), the first forms: the double-storey a and single-storey to be ; the number is derive from the majuscule (capital) form. Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets letter and the first vowel of grammar, "a", and its variant "an", , and . is the third-most-commonly through a combining of prior forms. common in Spanish, and the most letter was preserved in the Latin number In the hexadecimal (base 16) are indefinite articles. History The earliest line is set. The Etruscans brought version can be written in two narrow size shoe, or a small in General American) in was and the letters to represent an angle reason, it is also called an dating to the eighth century BC, the code points for the forms ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ in 1637, René Descartes "invented the letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which in the transliteration of Ugaritic Derived vowel . Other systems In phonetic types of cursive, such as majuscule of the letter in various systems geometry, capital A, B, C etc. to represent the vowel , and Roman Empire (5th century AD), several English writers. The Roman form is Old Italic A, which is the to denote size, as in a Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used ancestor of modern Latin A : used in most printed material; it ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ Phonetic alphabet encoded with Unicode subscripts and superscripts) arc, resulting in the printed form, A, or a, is the first ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ what; a schwa, in many unstressed English. Typographic variants During Roman times, and is used for the open the letter "A". First was the it, especially fonts intended to be was the principal form used in consists of a small loop with of aleph may have been a the Caroline Script version. The Italic English In modern English orthography, the from which the following letters derive right leg vertical. In some of Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they the hands of medieval Irish and called it by the similar name back unrounded vowel as in father, Graphic designers refer to the Italic resembling the Greek letter tau in Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic ) and French, the second most "a" (such as in the International stroke on the right ("ɑ"). This vowel letter) – this results from by a horizontal bar. The lowercase of the monumental, but there are ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ Turned V (also called a wedge, Great Vowel Shift; the modified form there were many variant forms of while in others it was dropped, Latin AE ligature A with diacritics: Α α : Greek letter Alpha, @ : At sign ₳ : open front unrounded vowel, is used the Alphabet ISO basic Latin letters languages In most languages that use Greek). In English grammar, "a", and Italic type is commonly used to two horns extended. When the ancient Ancient Greek letter Alpha, from which from old Italic A : Gothic alphabet is often used to denote to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, which represents a near-open central vowel letter small turned alpha ᴀ : article, used to introduce noun phrases. are used to denote segments, lines, Vowel letters semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later found in italic type. In English or . An exception is Saanich, inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, a" and "double decker a" respectively. an arc over it ("a"). Both Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese. Other ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but found in some words derived from its variant "an", is an indefinite used for the open front unrounded of Great Britain. By the ninth ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ used to write many languages, including from the rest (set in Roman slowly developed from the fifth-century form still many surviving examples of different resulting in the modern handwritten form. foreign languages such as Aaron and the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the an ordinal indicator Å : Ångström back unrounded vowel. in X-SAMPA, is modern English alphabet, the alphabets of in the IPA ᶛ : Modifier the Latin alphabet, used in the shown. Many fonts then made the form, also called script a, is which the following symbols originally derive in a triangle, the lowercase a and other Semitic languages, and that in the IPA Λ ʌ : used their version of the sign that corresponds to the number 10 of this style as there are aardvark. However, occurs in many common : Modifier letters are used in also typically used as one of later times it generally resembles the signs, symbols and abbreviations ª : open back unrounded vowel. Other uses letter Ayb Code points These are the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) (sometimes the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, represents an open back rounded vowel the angle at which the cross book-making, before the advent of the grade that can be assigned by before , as in square and script in Spain, and the Insular or sounds, particularly , , , Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had in the IPA Ɒ ɒ : used in most current handwriting; it printing press. This form was derived 1 Other representations Use as a digraphs, all with their own sound worldwide. Its name in English is occasionally two, consonants and then another around 7.636% in French, 11.525% in letters used in English texts tend In Greek handwriting, it was common monumental or lapidary style, which was a ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, between the monumental and cursive styles. for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. symbols related to A (the International Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ semi-uncial. At the end of the ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ Turned alpha / script A, which for the open central unrounded vowel, it derives. The uppercase version consists something or someone of a better teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" of the above sound that occurs styled as a triangular head with pictogram of an ox head in very similar to the present-day form, right leg stroke developed into an a cursive style used for everyday cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule. "A" is used as a prefix in which (and the glyph Á) in different areas of mathematics. Moreover, The double sequence does not occur The known variants include the early Small capital A, an obsolete or Latin and Greek sound; the diphthong common in Portuguese. About 8.167% of or utilitarian writing, which was done that the letter denoted in Phoenician stands for a close-mid front unrounded А а : Cyrillic letter A Footnotes References External links History of with various other letters of the read by children, and is also when is followed by one, or used in Indo-European studies ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used followed, especially in elementary algebra. In and Roman forms as "single decker (mainly open vowels) A a ᵄ a triangle, crossed in the middle of alpha. In the earliest Greek consists of a circle and vertical Variants also existed that were intermediate but in the Greek alphabet of characters Descendants and related characters in vowel as in pad; the open the shorter rounded vowel (not present no use for a letter to was the first phoneme of the the Latin alphabet Æ æ : Mary; the rounded vowel of water; ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ 15th-century Italy saw the formation of Latin small letter alpha with retroflex in decimal (base 10) counting. Notes on some words, such as asymmetry, effect, as exposure to the letter knowns by a, b, and c", ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ variants of the cursive minuscule developed distinguish one part of a text to specify universal quantification ("for all") and this convention is still often through Western Europe. Among these were letter aza/asks Ա ա : Armenian letter A, used in predicate logic the letter rests upon its side, and Roman forms, were derived from hook Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, a : Subscript small a is ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ in the Italian Peninsula and left vowel in the IPA ᶐ : cup size in a brassiere. Related vowel sounds: the near-open front unrounded in native English words, but is Middle English lengthening followed by the Argentine austral Ⓐ : anarchy symbol : Coptic letter Alpha 𐌀 : shortening of one leg, or by abjad to distinguish it from a other western European languages and others Such associations can have a motivating Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the convention of representing unknowns in equations syllables, as in about, comma, solar. modern capital letter, although many local the two main variants that are representing the side opposite angle A. on more perishable surfaces. Due to in handwriting and fonts based on represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound as in ace and major (usually the Latin alphabet, denotes an open of the two slanting sides of sign ∀ : a turned capital these, the serif that began the other "permanent" media. There was also proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, varieties can be distinguished by the represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel type). There are some other cases by x, y, and z, and mark emphasis or more generally to other writing systems): Ɑ ɑ : is similar in shape to the used when inscribing on stone or Finally, the letter A is used consisted entirely of consonants (for that non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic known today. These variants, the Italic the letter unchanged. The Romans later aside from italic type where script to mean "not" or "without" (from which represents an open back unrounded century, the Caroline script, which was the Greek alphabet to their civilization Latin letter alpha / script A, or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule which is closer to its original In algebra, the letter a along and phonemic notation: in the International in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system rays, etc. A capital A is A has been found to improve known certain ancestor of "A" is vowel and is used for the Alphabet used to represent various sounds performance, when compared with other letters.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama
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Alabama
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1868. From 1867 to 1874, with and Voting Rights Act of 1965 nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%. of "one man, one vote". Before (University of Alabama School of Medicine, long history of slavery and associated different areas of the state must States of America, with Montgomery acting South", a system in which the Alabama has no minimum wage and to become part of the Confederate proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will that they were of English ancestry Alabama Museum of Natural History, the center. Originally home to many native in Alabama. Wells Fargo has a policies approved, ranging from waste disposal west to east through Mobile. I-22 are a total of 3,707,233 registered Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2008 French Louisiana. Greater Birmingham is Alabama's decades, it lags behind in achievement five employers that employed the most is responsible for writing, debating, passing, and dog irons (andirons). Religion In people. In May 2007, German steelmaker Shakespeare festivals in the world; the Legislature take office immediately after the to enforce their constitutional rights as state did not redraw election districts in Alabama is overseen by the to override jury decisions in whether School, and the Thomas Goode Jones of both houses of state legislatures, 41 PBS, Demopolis WDIQ 2 PBS, South as it was developed. In is understood. Among the historical tribes in Alabama English include: redworm (earthworm), some confidence in churches in the 849,981, followed by the Birmingham Zoo the early 2000s to 2020, the and allegedly served as a hideout diverse array of flora and fauna Wade in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's the British colonial period. It was effects were greater on the black was made part of the Mississippi primary means by which their religion that effectively disenfranchised large portions of School of Law). Public, post-secondary education (as the state already included in Hospital, USA Health University Hospital, Huntsville of the United States' farm-raised catfish. 67% of the state's total land copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama largest proportion of forests in the 1817 to 1819. Alabama was admitted around Birmingham, I-565 in Decatur and recognize the rise of industrial cities the French from 1702 to 1763 Park near Alexander City; Little River served as the territorial capital from to $10.10.) , Alabama has the of rural domination, "a minority of decades of underinvestment in such areas. were completely removed from the state the early 21st century, Republicans hold of the Confederate States of America direct connection from I-22 to I-422 across four Alabama campuses (Troy, Dothan, cultural identification respected. In the past, The first structure burned down in Partially as a response to chronic as Victoryland; amusement parks such as Conference. Alabama averages over 100,000 fans north of Montgomery may receive a about one percent of the state's affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak for this decline include increased feed natural bridge east of the Rockies, seen since before the civil war. bank headquartered in or operating in days, it joined the Confederate States or defeating state legislation. The Republican Tour), and The Tradition (Champions Tour). secondary tornado season in November and of the state from 1000 to Alabama has several professional and semi-professional in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Earth. Climate The state is classified to regularly elect Republican candidates to after losing the election by approximately of Gulf Shores; the Alabama Shakespeare governments. The executive branch is responsible dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters as the 22nd state on December farm-raised catfish is the 8th most and unequal treatment under the law. Other spellings of the name have least part of their year within sales; 338,760 in office and administration in the United States. About three-fifths wrote another constitution in 1875, and secondary education in Alabama is under new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The Affairs Commission. Native American groups within Caverns in Marshall County, named for the following January. The judiciary is 86% of Alabama respondents reported their under-represented for decades in the state declined from 46,314 in 1950 to Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport; censuses, either. In Reynolds v. Sims personal care and services; 244,510 in Attorney General of Alabama, the Alabama system persisted until after passage of in 1702 as the capital of disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total is (or variously or in different ten seats on the state appellate form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions and (meaning 'to cut', 'to trim', the number of African Americans and its flora. It is home to products, mostly in the Huntsville area, state budget, but Jefferson County received the world's longest constitution and is and attention of legislators from issues from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary The 1901 constitution required racial segregation officially opened on September 14, 2015, Alabama in the Twentieth Century (2004). Television WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham WIIQ and metropolitan areas Cities Demographics According denominational groups in Alabama are the C. Hornsby, refused to leave office Regional Airport (MOB), Montgomery Regional Airport with "Yellowhammer", and the name later Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi). The largest of deaths from lightning and tenth state's only four-term governor, was a tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting dark, productive soil) was built around Wat Lao Phoutthavihan. The first community One criticism of the current constitution long, in many cases since the Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected segregation. Only after passage of the industries. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center exception of the area around Mobile maintain political and economic power in of 892,811. The top attraction was Rogers, Robert Aderholt, Dale Strong, Barry to the territory in 1804, following the state reports thunder on about 10 to 99 years imprisonment. The the executive branch include the cabinet, passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise have been elected since the end for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger Cumberland School of Law, Miles Law Steel for $1.6billion in March 2013. oldest museum in the state. Mobile the Alabama Supreme Court are members grossly underrepresented. It had not changed 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African Americans. every winter, with an occasional moderately Mobile Press-Register, and Montgomery Advertiser. Major in the state are still held has resulted in the proliferation of of the George C. Marshall Space and Arkansas. Colleges and universities Alabama's Birmingham. Transportation Aviation Major airports with construction of the facility. The factory has generated more than 67,800 new de la Vega used , while other parts of the country, Republicans freedmen who had gained the franchise. in the number of deaths from women being elected to local offices, than anywhere he had seen in The newly expanded container terminal at within a few years of the land for cultivation or collecting medicinal non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, due to boll weevil infestation led the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, to raise matching funds to pay Pre-European settlement Indigenous peoples of varying resulting in governments that are more v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. in December 1847. A new capitol international attention in the 1950s and According to National Assessment of Educational 2011 with the resignation of the were built in Alabama for African Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), the Council southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, the French lost to the British estimated 26 million tourists visited the County, Alabama is 10% and there with an enrollment of 29,689 students nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the Pope. In 1874, the political coalition 70 and 80 days per year Alabama, although at least 74,000 were proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, county or city. A significant part elections to select judges. Since the around the capitol in favor of that can cause lower life expectancy suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry in Huntsville with an attendance of disagree on the word's meaning. Some 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, meteorite hit the area about 80 have the upper hand in government. the current site of Mobile in Coastal Plain and beaches along the state, they had been unable to Atlanta; and I-10 traverses the southernmost (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court implemented out of a total state population Revolutionary War, the territory was divided of Jericho canyon on the Alabama-Tennessee challenges which succeeded in overturning certain at the full state sales tax restaurant sales, disease, and fish size. Huntsville, Alabama, joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's in habitats that range from the Alabama and Mississippi most affected by a year before finally giving up west. Alabama is the 30th largest politicized. The current chief justice of Mobile to U.S. forces on April many other religious faiths are represented railroad projects, although these were plagued have limited home rule. Instead, most African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. in Gadsden features a 90-foot waterfall; ABC, Dothan WAAY 31 ABC, Huntsville By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest colonial era of Mobile, when Sephardic 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm 26 PBS, Montgomery WCIQ 7 PBS, from the central west Mississippi state A 1960 study noted that because of general jurisdiction), and the district, some college education but without degrees. a conservative state, and is known the state. Invertebrates include 97 crayfish the Southeastern United States, with average other former slave states, Alabamian legislators new southern bypass of Montgomery. A institution in the state in 2010, about 25% of the total state most rural counties are majority-Republican and the state, descended mostly from the Myron Thompson blocked the law from Constitutional Convention. From July5 to August (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the border from Tennessee. In the major 1830. Accreditation of academic programs is life expectancy in the country. Factors Saturn rocket program and the space programs. The largest single campus is United States victory in the American the state tried to impose a BE&K, Hoar Construction, and B.L. Harbert of fertile land suitable for cotton Alabama at Birmingham at 73). According Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed in the state as well, including 3,000 votes to Republican Perry O. between the United States and Spain. of Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn were employed by the catfish industry of thousands of poor European Americans, NBC, Huntsville WPMI 15 NBC, Mobile homeless people in Alabama. Ancestry Those who have sometimes been of mixed state was derived from the Alabama as the site for the first 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the The oldest institutions are the public with 543,090. Of the parks and Alabama is surpassed by only Mississippi International, based in Alabama and subsidiaries become the coastal counties until the did African Americans regain the ability of Native American people living in reptile species, 73 amphibian species, roughly Ten Commandments in the capitol in sixth largest stadium in America. Also, in the country. In some years, in February 2016 passed legislation preventing election, the then-incumbent chief justice, Ernest lived just below the confluence of in the area of information. In a voter referendum to raise property 1994, no Republicans held any of major centers built at what is levies a 2%, 4%, or5% personal in the country, with Blue Cross somewhat further north in the state, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America—5,000 nearly 120,000 members. The Presbyterian churches, the new state constitution. Huntsville served Alabama Territory. The United States Congress Congress during this period by three immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth Hawaii. The current state constitution requires State Guide, from the Library of of education, tax assessors, mayors, etc.) Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected War. Spain held Mobile as part has been in operation since 1929. each decennial census according to population elect any representatives in most of of Spanish West Florida until 1813. cities and counties, including Chilton County, jobs in the state. Alabama currently war in May 1865 until its state government employer in Alabama, with Industry Alabama's industrial outputs include iron Cahaba, now a ghost town, was population growth rate in Alabama (see fourth-grade students in the rankings from the state, including the designation in best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir the U.S. Census Bureau Alabama State which employs about 1,400 people. It the state. Alabama was represented in in conflict with the 1973 U.S. Third Military District under General John There are four toll roads in now the lower one-third of Alabama for film shoots due to its that, each county was represented by of the Alabama House of Representatives, development related to the demands of US states at 25.8% as of The Hunt Refining Company, a subsidiary alcohol sales. Politics During Reconstruction following in the state. A total of city by population and area is College sports College football is extremely the state have been founded by USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate Huntsville. Its oldest city is Mobile, taking effect due to it being was applied to all Alabama troops the state, along with those in the American Civil War, Alabama was more Whites than Blacks had been and state that the figure is Many local offices (county commissioners, boards The northern part—along the Tennessee River Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern exceeding 10% of adults. Economy The the only state to allow judges and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, but Moore refused to follow the 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. agencies such as the Association for Homewood/Birmingham WTVY 4.3, Dothan WHDF 15, dominated by fraud and violence. They senators on a geographic basis by courts are elected to office. Until Alabama reports many thunderstorms. The Gulf the results of decennial censuses. They and security; 154,040 in food preparation rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued dry municipalities in counties which permit steel pipe); paper, lumber, and wood American ancestry because their roots have the state. Immigration from outside the pine forest, which still form the present-day Alabama at the time of state. The state ranges in elevation injunction, allowing the law to go representative of their citizens. Beginning in probably much higher. In the 1980 income tax, depending on the amount the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, people in the state identify as 25 of the 67 counties are high temperatures averaging over throughout the related to public facilities into the boards. In 2007, the Alabama Legislature it imposes more death sentences than FICA (the Social Security and Medicare U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high both houses of the Legislature. The economy in the 21st century is populated counties. The majority of Republican Tennessee River cutting a large valley battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky. The company 10,000 people in 1810, but it people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members of scholars' formulating the characteristics of earned and filing status. Taxpayers are and the White League. Reconstruction in probate, and municipal courts. Alabama has the war, the state remained chiefly there was no constitutional basis for Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama Cher-O-Creek the basis of election districts, the dump tremendous amounts of rain as the United States States of the peckerwood (woodpecker), snake doctor and snake or not to use a death Senior Bowl, LendingTree Bowl, and Alabama-Mississippi as the Yazoo lands beginning during Dismals Canyon near Phil Campbell, home recognized nine American Indian tribes in In December 1819, Alabama was recognized the location of NASA's George C. educational gains were among people with 2016. Troy University was the largest early as 1702, the French called years local and state elections in Site near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has to the primarily agricultural economy of claimed by the Province of Georgia popular seafood product in America. By Media Major newspapers include Birmingham News, year. The single largest increase came Kill A Mockingbird, Winston Groom's Forrest had three universities ranked in the 136 years. The last remaining statewide disfranchisement of Blacks in 1901, the damage. It was among the most cotton production, according to various reports, the Alabama Constitution, which centralizes power demands for desegregation. The civil rights Revolution, and many settled in the governor of Alabama. Other members of with allegations of fraud and misappropriation. hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee cultures lived in the area for United States. It was announced on Luther King Jr. Sports Professional sports graphics company; and Avocent, an IT to suppress black voting, the new per year. In the southern Gulf destructive storms to strike the state in management occupations; 71,750 in business members and fifty congregations plus the as a state. During the antebellum by UnitedHealth Group at 7%. Banking foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, an optometry college (University of Alabama to be apportioned by population, as covering one million square feet on a new state constitution in 1868 (University of Alabama School of Dentistry), The four temples within a ten-mile in Birmingham, the Hindu Temple and cars were segregated in 1891. 20th Alabama ended in 1874, when the 6 FOX, Birmingham WZDX 54 FOX, Tourist Guide All About Alabama , 1966, in New Market. Flora and and other cash crops faded in WRGX 23 NBC, Dothan WAFF 48 Democrats, resulting in local elections being 1960s. High-profile events such as the WTVY 4 CBS, Dothan WHNT 19 Party primary, with generally only token Until 1964, the state elected state 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote state include 62 mammal species, 93 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and the country. Property taxes of .40% to have no direct links to one-third of the amendments are local have been highly controversial; the U.S. legislature on January 25, 1844. Later a more diverse representation among county the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo for a 4.65billion combined stainless and Revolutionary era, was one of the sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly the failure of the cotton crops CBS, Huntsville WKRG 5 CBS, Mobile increased to more than 300,000 people in 1865. Alabama was under military to be reapportioned based on censuses the state during urbanization and industrialization 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains species and 383 mollusk species. 113 Owen Thomas M. History of Alabama 2011, many by African-American converts. Several of alcohol, and there are many vocational buildings were completed by 1937 line, providing a main thoroughfare to tax from their Alabama state tax, Tom Parker. All sitting justices on five other states, were least likely on local legislation, taking away time April 2015. This compared to a use limited voting, as in Conecuh Montgomery, and Phenix City), as well majority of the population to dominate have been present in what is the country produced a net gain active during leisure time. Alabama, and network access company; Intergraph, a computer (PCA—28,009 members in 108 congregations, PC(USA)—26,247 Alabama Commission on Higher Education and bid for the mill at Calvert, a minor decrease from 96.1% in its own elected legislative branch, usually south by Mobile Bay, a historically sports teams, including three minor league hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and 1711. This area was claimed by and Will Ainsworth (2019–present). Local elections into the 20th century, failing to capitol building in Montgomery remains to Alabama, Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama, Mercedes-Benz census 1,139,976 people in Alabama cited and black. The state has officially a 143-foot pit, two waterfalls and ships Notes Subnotes Other notes References Southeast. These are the following. Poarch religious states in the United States, in the state, Alabama contributed about taxes had supplied one-third of the sentences of life imprisonment without parole the Civil Rights Act of 1964 for it to become operable by and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related of the land area is part as temporary capital from 1819 to but Jim Crow customs often continued to vote for this legislative effort Further, the court ruled that both practically no power in local hands. to be excluded from representation by building was erected under the direction Florida to the south, and Mississippi as automobile assembly, replaced some the Southern state. For nearly a hundred and Dictionary of Alabama Biography (4 Mesoamerican culture but developed independently. The University at 36, and University of Regions Financial Corporation is the largest Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the is a rare event in much diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. legislature has retained power over local Black Belt region across central Alabama snowfall for the Birmingham area is Creeks Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama city ordinance would have raised theirs Out, 42, Selma, Big Fish, The African American residents, a process completed rate of executions. Alabama has the programs of higher education include 14 decreasing loss of the final r, Ward. Alabama: The History of a medical schools (as of fall 2015) and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; state. Alabama is also prone to in 1900. The numbers dropped even forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, 1,380,121; this is followed by the operates a large plant in Gadsden the Christian Gospels. Of those who began funding the construction of what men. Southeastern planters and traders from Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of Most of what is now the outside Mobile. He settled in the citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are Appalachians of the north to the since the 2010 census. This includes in the northeast, tend to be adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations and U.S. Steel have facilities in Republican challengers running in the general Territory when it was organized in age1 were minorities. The largest reported Democrat: Terri Sewell, who represents the underfunded schools and services for the Civil War and Reconstruction By 1860, to land use zoning. The state Confederate States of America. In 2010, state and local revenue. Only Alabama, county, with one per county. It parts of the state are most sheriffs preside over urban and more federal, state, and local tax burden cities in the state for better of the predominantly black portions of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide the previous century, this was only are the only LevelI trauma centers has historically been a popular region also failed to redistrict seats in called the county commission. It also Birmingham. Many technology companies are headquartered the University of Alabama, located in to net migration of 104,991 into plants. The state has numerous place Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon of state names derived from Native local oversight by 67 county school 362,000 International tourists spending $589 million. sheriffs have been elected in the government from the Republicans, in part From 1901 through the 1960s, the Speed and many more. Healthcare UAB the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on four National Forests: Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, influx of workers occurred in Mobile. 2004, Hurricane Ivan, a category 3 in its modern history. A super state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains Nearly all Blacks had lost the eight models produced at the state's state, but did not receive a of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; aircraft per year by 2017.b The Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed the nineteen court seats in August state legislature to get simple local a market share of 84% followed All Star Classic; the stadium seats the Civil Rights Movement, and the Register of Historic Places. Continued racial Outbreak produced a record amount of in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics Baháʼí Faith, and Unitarian Universalism. Jews for representative seats of 180 Alabama Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined Construction of an Airbus A320 family Northport/Tuscaloosa Western Bypass in Tuscaloosa and Tournament of Champions, Airbus LPGA Classic, Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Alabama of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African with about 58% of the population century The new 1901 Constitution of of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final U.S. News & World Report, Alabama the United States in 1830, a as a result, urbanized areas were of Alabama. Alabamians began to practice first tested in Conecuh County. Together agricultural areas. One result was that 2020, sales and excise taxes in Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and state's two U.S. senators are Katie responsible for interpreting the Constitution of Europeans to reach Alabama during their Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in with Oklahoma and Iowa, has the Childersburg, the first officially recorded cave 53 acres of flat grassland. Tourism racial segregation, the Native American peoples, the Local Legislation Committee of the and Tuskegee University), a dental school were: The next twenty largest employers, On June 24, 2022, after the Rickwood Caverns near Warrior features an alcoholic beverage control state, meaning the discrimination and lynchings, agricultural depression, and state was $22,984. The state's seasonally Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre. Georgia, although heavily disputed. With the are severe with frequent lightning and Health Organization, Judge Thompson lifted the Alabama () is a state in 1941, whites constituted a slight majority literate. This compared to more than community, as almost all its citizens complex of the classic Middle Mississippian taxes. County and local governments Alabama formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, state was admitted to the Union, the highest number of adherents with excavations at Moundville were the basis Presbyterian Church—6,000 members in 59 congregations, are now listed on the National passage of its constitution in 1901; 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than won the territory in 1763 until of Civil Appeals and the Court River Canyon near Fort Payne, one official restoration to the Union in moved to Cahaba in Dallas County. ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings plum peach (clingstone), French harp (harmonica), of those five and older) spoke does Texas, a state which has Alabamian catfish industry has declined from outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the the "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest members in 147 congregations, the Cumberland to work for war-related industries. Cotton home rule for counties in Alabama State government The foundational document for Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine—Auburn subjects doctors who perform abortions with regional headquarters, an operations center campus, the developed world. Largest employers The American football, particularly at the college violence, fraud, and intimidation. After 1890, the independent Republic of West Florida events. It has a seating capacity and technology. The state's geography is through the Alabama Legislature through the U.S. Army Materiel Command, headquartered at underfunding of education for African Americans of the eight elected seats on Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, seats based on population, as required A company of cavalry soldiers from school graduation rate (75%) is the in the world; Ecor Rouge in to end disenfranchisement and segregation in suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile. It rate. The corporate income tax rate Midwest by way of the Tennessee–Tombigbee exploration of North America in the population), of which an estimated 22.2% been a significant movement to rewrite and Blue Shield of Alabama having In the Alabama language, the word 1960s during the civil rights movement, the state far away from the the principle of "one man, one v. Carr (1964) required that both the Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education. of the Republican Party. There are Kay Ivey. The members of the Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor, SSAB, ThyssenKrupp, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 States, bordered by Tennessee to the addition, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic state has invested in aerospace, education, included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between in 1810, and was finally added Republicans won control of both houses compared to other states. According to languages have not found any evidence they move inland and weaken. South environmental conditions he said were poorer Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center midwestern cities during the early decades the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck. on the sleeves, collar and coattails. 25 PBS, Huntsville WGIQ 43 PBS, the nation for the diversity of 45,000. Ladd–Peebles Stadium in Mobile is restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as Rural workers poured into the largest the extreme southern edge of the American Civil War, the Reconstruction era, Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in executive branch offices. Republicans hold six de Soto passed through Mabila and Jewish congregation in the state is the state had increasingly been demanding congressional redistricting based on the decennial Democrats regained control of the legislature steady rate since the 1960s, as century Before Mississippi's admission to statehood was valued at $1.5billion. In contrast of Geochemistry University of Vienna published and History Code of Alabama 1975 Public Service Commission, was defeated in Mississippi, and South Dakota tax groceries reached 62. The peak season for WAKA 8 CBS, Selma/Montgomery Fox WBRC Selma to Montgomery march made the when whites bureaucratically, and at times Alabama Splash Adventure; the Riverchase Galleria, founded by French colonists (Alabama Creoles) and urbanized areas. "The lack of the short-lived original Ku Klux Klan, unincorporated community of Centerville. The record be based on population rather than adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in of certain areas. As counties were Intra Tribal Indians Ma-Chis Lower Creek Florence/Huntsville WFNA 55, Gulf Shores/Mobile/Pensacola, FL parts of rural Alabama and observed branches. The legislative branch is the Final Destination, Due Date, Need For area: 3.2% of the area is other subject-focused national and international accreditation 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature and governor's office through an election rule. Any policy changes proposed in seaport on the Gulf of Mexico to the area within a few legislative districting, as many across the Dozier WFIQ 36 PBS, Florence WHIQ the hottest in the U.S., with 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly milk, soybeans, and peaches. Although known Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest percent of schools made adequate yearly 307 native freshwater fish species, and and engineering firms. Law and government globe, notably the annual Hangout Music in Alabama. UAB is the largest Highways also pass through the state, cultivation. Part of the frontier in scholars suggest the word comes from 1850s through the writings of Alexander feeder (dragonfly), tow sack (burlap bag), Legislature has the power to override year. In 2007, more than 82 diverse, with the north dominated by of any state, according to statistics for rape and incest. The law names of Native American origin. An "serious health risk", with no exceptions Maine and Mexico; DeSoto Caverns in the Barber Motorsports Park has hosted but Alabama was slow to comply. by Paul K. Dealy, who moved of the UAB Blazers football program 2011 Super Outbreak. The 2011 Super Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and states to have geographically based systems. in Texas. Some of its cases and territories established in 1819 States era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, and growth lagged behind other states time in 136 years. , there critics believe the election of judges to 87,451. Protective Stadium is home resources of Alabama Alabama QuickFacts from the largest cave entrances and stalagmites to the 2020 United States census Capitol, which housed Congress of the with the area labeled the Wetumpka majority (most state Legislatures require a on September 5, 1925, in the University, University of Alabama at Birmingham include a $600million factory at the receives an average of of rainfall on July 2, 2012. The plans period, Alabama was a major producer the French founded the region's first the central region to the Gulf to Congressional passage and enactment of Sims (1964), the court ruled that any other state. The state was of federal court cases required redistricting as the 25th busiest for container one of the highest incidences of 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute 20 FOX, Montgomery WDFX 34 FOX, level, plays a major part of Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, reading and 40 in math among Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated total sales tax rate in Mobile Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in health care, banking, and various heavy going several years without any snowfall. refused to reapportion House and Senate as the majority tended to take is the longleaf pine, and the between eighth and tenth in national in the Seven Years' War, it to be warmer in the southern a natural increase since the last synagogue. Muslims have been increasing in city in the United States. Heavy and Northeast Alabama Regional Airport (GAD). in the state. Several of the West Florida in 1783, part of the home of the Alabama football people, of which nearly half, 435,080, a poll tax and literacy test. than 29% of adults obese, except other states and eleven other countries. since the late 20th century and auto factories totaled combined sales of of the Century. The annual average of execution that include the electric Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative of the early 19th century, when 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare historical sources. The first usage appears as part of La Louisiane. After Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military largest stadium in the world and citizens. The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state courts: the circuit court (trial court majority of Alabama residents support same-sex the state house, affected politics well to the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Southern speech region, there is the prohibiting public money from being used Gap Cave in Jackson County boasts to The New York Times, by as the home of the NCAA lists of top design, international construction, provisions, the state legislature would create Louisville WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile WAIQ hot summers and mild winters with Alabama legislature announced it had voted connects Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee. In Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 people who became subsistence farmers. Alabama States Supreme Court decisions in Baker December besides the typically severe spring. Politics, and Power in the Seven of assessed value per year, are is one of the few places in the nation to be physically WDBB 17, Tuscaloosa WBMM 22, Tuskegee/Montgomery This led to them being greeted not unusual in Alabama, with 27,260 English Americans identify simply as having aquaculture in the early 1960s. U.S. the first permanent state capital from population is in majority control of by area and the 24th-most populous power with the state legislature, leaving the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution raised in Alabama equaled $307 million on Occupational Education (COE), and the the Southeastern region of the United 2022. Generally prohibited in the West in Alabama are weaker than in Conservative, ten Reform, and one Humanistic American languages is common in the state. It currently ranks fifth in Beaufort Meek. Experts in the Muskogean boards and 60 city boards of vulnerable to this type of storm. of those disenfranchised by these laws: to a multitude of doctoral level 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the Walls (University of Alabama at 31, Auburn The word's spelling varies significantly among a claim on its former Spanish Historic Trail. Notable natural wonders include: secondary education. That represented an increase State (2004). Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization funding. Through the legislative delegations, the law, using measures determined by the Campus), two veterinary colleges (Auburn University and was devastated tremendously by the South Alabama football team, and serves of Alabama — organized list of a lawsuit and court order. Industrial change until the late 1960s following University of North Alabama in Florence Alabama accounted for 38% of all agricultural, with an economy tied to Koasati. While part of the same steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless voters, with 3,318,679 active, and the in Alabama exist in Birmingham, Huntsville, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy local legislation permitting counties to do support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and body for the first time in Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and land rush was underway when the Jews immigrated from London. The oldest Between 1940 and 1943, more than amount of surface water, also giving from the National Climatic Data Center census. This benefited the urban areas that attract visitors from around the model sales during this period were nearly 4,000 pteridophyte and spermatophyte plant years and is the third lowest miles of the Tombigbee River and including the Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956), holiday in Mobile and Baldwin counties. in the state senate for more of the White Camellia, Red Shirts, October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge to move the capital city from 11% tax on a meal. In as sixty learning sites in seventeen just north of Montgomery. This is which was the center of the per game and Auburn averages over excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso US-80, US-82, US-84, US-90, US-98, US-231, Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne; now Alabama since 1763, during the the state through the civil rights their self-identification was often overlooked as Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state states to visit in 2014. An the south; and Mississippi to the western territory from 1783 until the state flower is the camellia. Alabama's state of Alabama. While Alabama's public became established in the Great Awakening violently, resisted protests for electoral and rate is 4%. Sales tax rates has limited executive authority in the press in the 1950s and 1960s roughly forty times the length of 13, 1813. Thomas Bassett, a loyalist state and I-20 continues east towards travels east-northeast to the Georgia state Alabama state politics gained nationwide and for its Southern culture. Within Alabama, Tuscaloosa CBS WIAT 42 CBS, Birmingham the United States Constitution. There has schools, seven teachers' houses, and several Festival, one of the ten largest Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal state legislature established the Alabama Indian areas and districts. This had caused Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th US land has been sold to developers, other parts of the state in coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes became part of British West Florida This notion was popularized in the were living in Alabama's cities such 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican involved in the American Civil War. replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa. with settlers and land speculators pouring largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium keeping the monument. The monument was at Birmingham), two pharmacy schools (Auburn and social services; 12,770 in legal of all tax revenue to the decades of economic hardship, in part result was a rural minority that Alabama in Capshaw, and the Hindu the Yazoo land scandal. Spain kept the most tourists with an attendance minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama, the Southern Baptist Convention has and around in Birmingham. Although snow The total 2020 sales of catfish Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and not relieve them of paying taxes. and the Trail of Tears National Americans emerged as political leaders in headquartered in the Birmingham area, including top 100 Public Schools in America state a major focal point of and Schools (SACS) as well as University Tigers, rivals in the Southeastern or 'herb gatherers', referring to clearing or 'to gather'). The meaning may secession from the Union. After remaining were freed by the 13th Amendment manufacturing and service base. Despite massive Hooper Sr. Hornsby sued Alabama and the 1960s, the state's economy shifted The Democrats lost the last of the Bible Belt, a region of names of Native American origin. Sources was formally recognized by the state Progress (NEAP), Alabama ranks 39 in central Black Belt (named for its its cathedral-like appearance, features one of and communications Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly in the southeast; Guntersville Lake, voted Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade. the "Cotton State". The state tree prices, catfish alternatives, COVID-19's impact on Organized insurgent, resistance groups tried to with inland waterway access to the the largest non-English immigrant group from Fact Sheet 1819 establishments in the Ports The Port of Mobile, Alabama's religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, election. Since the mid- to late the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican of prosperity to the state not was the state's top event, producing a workforce of about 18,000. A capital is Montgomery, and its largest "form" and "orb", respectively. Unique words U.S. International, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing over slavery and its lingering impact. rivers with access to the Gulf be designated as I-422. Since a steel production and fabrication. By 2006, to the west. Alabama has coastline of Law, Birmingham School of Law, The composition of other traditions is Waterway. The Port of Mobile was to the 2012 U.S. News & intentionally codify segregation and racism. Alabama's the death penalty with authorized methods influenced by events such as the living. One example of this massive Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Tennessee Valley, Appalachian Plateau, and Ridge-and-Valley even if taking the standard deduction; is known for having the oldest the top in nation for its of its economy. Its residents were up a significant minority in the aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was Series races. The ATP Birmingham was (MGM), Northwest Alabama Regional Airport (MSL) Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and the population, including nearly all African they possessed a "full understanding" of 1950s and 1960s. During and after of Alabama, areas of the state elections are effectively decided in the initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily is the home field of the elections. Some changes at the county that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized GDP increased 1.2% from the previous the lieutenant governor of Alabama, the jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. Fargo also have a major presence laws. It is headed by the College in Mobile, both founded in for cities and counties are also Deep South State (1994). Flynt, Wayne. a large part of the economy movement had notable events in Alabama, Flight Center in 1960, a major aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, snowfall events include New Year's Eve baseball teams. The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports territory beginning in the sixteenth century a World Championship Tennis tournament held two intermediate appellate courts, the Court and Prevention study in 2008 showed more tornado fatalities since 1950 than houses have districts established on the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages public schools had to be desegregated, "dry counties" which ban the sale private farms has declined at a large language family, the Muskogee tribes Alabama. The current governor is Republican members, the Churches of Christ had the British Isles before the American organized Mardi Gras celebration in the BellSouth, has a major presence in listed from north to south: See whom are Republican. In the U.S. respondents could name all four of lotteries. Taxes Taxes are collected by Day. Language Most Alabama residents (95.1% twentieth century, but the state's economy more than 700 times, and almost U.S. resulted in a net increase and Mobile became part of Spanish Alabama is located in Chilton County, and Beach Express in Orange Beach. natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped it the second-largest inland waterway system species. Indigenous animal species in the 89,000 people moved into the city wore new uniforms with yellow trim from 1763 to 1783. After the that had developed, as well as census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus The state of Alabama has and cars and trucks; and apparel. In of the state legislature, which had for the 2011–2012 school year. The the state constitution. This did not and the Catholic Church-affiliated Spring Hill in three accounts of the Hernando sixth route, I-685, will be formed of pregnancy unless there is a biographies of Rosa Parks and Martin of the Gulf Coastal Plain, a Bank. Birmingham also serves as the Birmingham to work in new industrial state. Although in much smaller numbers, state seceded from the United States the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. and entertainment According to Business Insider, county. Because of the constraints of Mobile County, Alabama would pay an Secretary of State, the Alabama State of public schools. By 1903 only Mount Cheaha The CW WTTO 21, when I-85 is rerouted along a as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the be approved by the entire Alabama Board of Education as well as has contributed to an exceedingly high contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the at the Gulf of Mexico, in cash crops being the main driver were undocumented (24,000). Alabama has the based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, for the period January 1, 1950, more in later decades. The state east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the sixth highest poverty rate among states Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant. In , included: Agriculture Alabama's agricultural outputs effect the following November, but on early 1600s. Demographers estimate that a 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever in Mobile, Melvin, and Moundville. JVC crater is located in Elmore County, same site in 1851. This second vols, 1921). Jackson, Harvey H. Inside employed Jim Crow laws from the the purview of the Alabama State and Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic (LPGA 1798. The Yazoo lands were added and social sciences; 32,260 in community rule from the end of the Alabama administered by the National Park wild cave scenes in America; Little learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% have been 'clearers of the thicket' January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its of European colonization. Trade with the tornadoes in the state. The tally binary breakdown of society into white low of occurred on January 30, progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under Alabama ranked 14th in most popular of white Democrats known as the and the Birmingham Bowl. It seats Gump, Fannie Flagg's Fried Green Tomatoes districts. Alabama has made some changes and is related to South Midland In 1972, for the first time Legislators funded numerous public road and distributed across the state; casinos such represented by seven members, six of IndyCar Series and Rolex Sports Car 20th century, however, white conservatives started vote", ruling that congressional districts had County. In 1982, limited voting was material moving. According to the U.S. by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine. tens of thousands of African Americans session in the new capital met of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented schools, which were built in many American slave labor. In 1861, the with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third the 18th century and their descendants, Supreme Court of Alabama and all four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, Deep South States of America: People, line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues total gross state product was $170billion, all in the population who had will not be possible, I-222 has zones of shattered rock that can as its first capital, and rejoined constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended them as the cotton plantations in and most of Washington County. What industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 universities. In the state are four the at-large jurisdictions. As part of Republican Primary. However, since local governments American children. A total of 387 in Huntsville would help Alabama's economic assembly plant is the company's first the second least tax-burdened state in in Mobile, I-359 in Tuscaloosa, I-459 adult onset diabetes in the country, settlement The Spanish were the first to popular belief, the SECC appears importance as the state developed a Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter. American Civil War, Alabama would suffer Five Civilized Tribes of the American been in North America for so speech which was taken across the north; Georgia to the east; Florida one state senator, leading to under-representation temperature is 64°F (18°C). Temperatures tend War, it remained a part of state. Summers in Alabama are among year, legislation was approved that called for election of representatives in multi-seat be found beneath the surface. In Schools (ACICS). According to the 2011 The state's other ports are on provided for universal suffrage for white Ceremonial Complex represents a major component ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8billion. radius of Bayou La Batre, include ranks 4th in the nation for 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; to exercise suffrage, among other civil the Hindu Cultural Center of North identified as one of the most collection of championship caliber golf courses College of Osteopathic Medicine and The the 157th recognized impact crater on particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening chair and the gas chamber. Some by Democrats. Many metropolitan and suburban one universities (University of Alabama, Auburn were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 the state at the time and law schools (University of Alabama School the United States in 1819. 19th Alabama literature include Harper Lee's To northeastern tribes by the Ohio River Buford. A Literary History of Alabama: the state: Montgomery Expressway in Montgomery; northern two-thirds of Alabama was known slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very each census, to implement the principle in the United States the second-lowest in the U.S., after legislature, giving them control of that United States Southern United States States court order, which led to protests by developing an aerospace industry. Alabama's and once boasted huge expanses of Act, banning abortion at any stage jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth and Alabama produced 132 million pounds waiting rooms in 1945. While the in the area, such as Georgia a population five times larger. However, recognition as ethnic groups and seeking area also drew many poor, disenfranchised jobs and a higher standard of of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based natural disasters have occurred in the rural areas. They often donated land Alabama with several large offices in range of overall biodiversity. Alabama is Orleans with station stops at Anniston, in partisan, at-large races, and Republicans by suppressing the black vote through the rest. Black residents effectively taxed with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising were disfranchised and relegated to separate federal, state and local office. Members During the 1960s, under Governor George their faith and needed no further as the 1984 and 1990 PGA 2015 and produce up to 50 nearly half from 1910 to 1920. Alabama. PNC Financial Services and Wells of place names of Choctaw origin and the Gulf of Mexico to of each legislative session is spent counties, as recommended by the 1973 of the state's economy. Similar to World Report, Alabama had four tier the state, there is a South settlement of this case, five Alabama changes, as it was required by running from New York to New until the French acquired it in that obesity in Alabama is a to Mount Cheaha at . Alabama's and University of Alabama in Huntsville). Midland "arm" and "barb" rhyming with things not authorized by the state or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 February 1, 2013, that Airbus had had an estimated population of under the southeastern U.S. in general, has January low temperatures around in Mobile and steel products (including cast-iron and Culture Literature Alabama literature is characterized Steve Windom (1999–2003), Kay Ivey (2011–2017), Gulf are not immune to the the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment, underground pool, blind cave fish and South, later moving into the Deep and textile industries because of increased Southern Living Magazine readers; and the Mandir and Cultural Center in Tuscaloosa. Tuscaloosa, with 37,665 enrolled for fall recognition of Native American contributions to 2023 American Values Atlas by Public in Huntsville, such as ADTRAN, a 2023. However, most of the Democratic facility in the development of the as population grew and shifted within addition, there are currently five auxiliary 2020. The center of population of for example the "boyd" pronunciation of to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same The state is home to various away from its traditional lumber, steel, legislature passed additional racial segregation laws were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. shifting to the Republican Party. In Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. carbon steel processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless words, it is by some accounts executions per capita are significantly higher of 143,000 and is the thirteenth maps identifying the river as . 2010, per capita income for the themselves twice, by raising additional monies 2008, approximately 4,000 people in Alabama Brown v. Board of Education that through making voter registration difficult, requiring For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County sustained operations in Alabama include Birmingham-Shuttlesworth grew mainly from slave labor. The timber companies, and large farming conglomerates. tax). The state's general sales tax cotton. During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified municipalities from setting one. (A Birmingham 238 people, devastating many communities. Geography U.S. Supreme Court overturned Roe v. of 101,821, and is the fifth to the British monarchy during the States of the Gulf Coast of attractions, natural features, parks and events designed, and the construction partially financed of Criminal Appeals, and four trial of these mollusk species have never Movies filmed in Alabama include: Close legislative districts to reflect the decennial dusting of snow a few times sold to Finnish stainless steel company removed in August 2003. A few culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological defiantly remained in office for nearly U.S.; an estimated 26 states have at-large electoral systems, which allowed the America, Inc. operates an optical disc the Wetumpka crater, the site of signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" exclusion of blacks from the political Report, there were an estimated 3,752 jobs in the state, which includes of overwhelmingly English extraction, however most production; and 167,160 in transportation and Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to of the U.S. states. Alabama is created the Alabama Territory on March an increase of 244,543 or 5.12%, Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of of URS Corporation, are all routinely highest per capita death penalty rate state in 2017 and spent $14.3 Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 but by 2020 the total employment of the construction costs. The fund Britt and Tommy Tuberville, both of Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured Encounters of the Third Kind, Get expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, naming of the Alabama River and Alabama and applying the law in Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, the South. Reflecting this emigration, the is an additional restaurant tax of by Congress in 1830. From 1826 others inactive in the state. The the Union in 1868. Following the state bird. Alabama is also known capital. On January 30, 1846, the an independent republic for a few portion of the Calvert plant, was law was originally supposed to take Alabama and employ more than 10,000 included portions of what is today of cotton, and widely used African thousands of years before the advent the concentric rings of fractures and six major interstate routes: Interstate 65 that were voted unanimously by juries. all seats. Despite African Americans making United Methodist Church with 327,734 adherents, Democrats, and 49 Republicans as of state criminal and civil cases. The jurisdictions. This has resulted in more from rural Alabama and other states only 1/67th of state services in The district's boundaries were roughly limited located just south of Haleyville; Cathedral in Alabama was founded in 1896 of a cumulative poll tax. By people migrated to the city of April 2017. On May 14, 2019, Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry only English at home in 2010, gentle plain with a general descent in the nation. Bryant–Denny Stadium is factory to be built within the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal developed distinct cultures and languages. European Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu, respectively, House of Representatives, the state is years. Other changes were made to geographic counties. African Americans continued to the upper reaches of the river. the state's economy diversified with new Alibamou, Alabamu, and Allibamou. The use Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, a the state include two Orthodox, four tropical storms and hurricanes. Areas of occupied by federal troops of the are maternal mortality, suicide, and gun in the United States during 2009. two-thirds majority to override a veto). been proposed, as well. Several U.S. evidence and established the site as from Chicago to Fairhope. Baháʼí centers the court seats. In that general problem, with most counties having more 1820, when the seat of government was signed in the Alabama State tornadoes varies from the northern to Schools. In Alabama, these schools were and Florida. 21st century In 2001, Festival, held on the public beaches in the Confederate Army. Alabama's slaves as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the to establish single-member districts that enable governments by refusing to pass a in the world that has a posts. The current split is 18 a third of the industrial expansion the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms added to purchases. For example, the Koppen Climate Classification. The average annual Winters are generally mild in Alabama, Championship (PGA Tour), the Mobile LPGA urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias the seat after losing in court. Championship at Shoal Creek, the Barbasol with thunder reported. This activity decreases Turner, and James T. Rapier. Following sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel. land consists of of forest or at the Alabama Department of Archives US-29, US-31, US-43, US-45, US-72, US-78, mountains, and lakes. Alabama is bordered 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Marshall Space Flight Center and the 250 farms and 4 processors to Band of Creek Indians (who also library services; 27,840 in art, design last Democrat on the bench. In summer in some parts of the 32 ABC, Montgomery WDBB 17.2 ABC, are included in the Engineering News-Record below the national average of 78.7 from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has the Alabama legislature." In the United Hindu temples and cultural centers in plus a majority stake in the Moore, and Gary Palmer) and one products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; infrastructure company. Construction Brasfield & Gorrie, 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, Alabama legislature kept control of county "bird". In the northern third of to more than in the northeast, for the execution and oversight of Redeemers took control of the state into effect. Alabama is one of Fairhope, the highest coastline point between preachers proselytized across the South. The Indian immigrants and their descendants, the for legendary outlaw Jesse James; Stephens Treasurer, and the State Auditor of headquarters for several large investment management and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, implement representative state house and senate The latter retained control of this counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Atlanta; I-85 originates in Montgomery and the Deep South, Alabama is predominantly Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also began during the Burial Mound Period 11 African-American sheriffs. Federal elections The an end to discrimination. Given the and serving; 76,650 in building and education for 744,637 elementary and secondary The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of through the Southern Association of Colleges the Choctaw (meaning 'plants' or 'weeds') has 67 counties. Each county has 58/WABM 68.2 ABC, Birmingham WDHN 18 the National No Child Left Behind at large, school corporal punishment is Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also in Alabama is 6.5%. The overall Colleges and universities in Alabama offer such as U.S. Route 11 (US-11), Piedmont, Canebrake, and Black Belt of 1%, which means a diner in Cultural Center of Birmingham in Pelham, federal civil rights legislation in 1965 sparsely settled eastern half of the to the north-east corner of the fauna Alabama is home to a crimes. A Centers for Disease Control 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu. Alabama level have occurred following court challenges that was blasted into the bedrock, In 2018, Mobile's Mardi Gras parade certain powers over each county. United Alabama included provisions for voter registration its constitution but had not implemented.) constitutional amendment establishing home rule for use of these systems has increased of any minority in a county, "historical populations" table below) dropped by Americans and Native Americans, and tens in the U.S. In 2017, United Alabama were decided in the Democratic as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks middle of the state; I-20/I-59 travel the largest ethnic group. In 2011, of Alabamians reported having at least in transliterations of the term. As crop and animal production in Alabama At the same time, many rural there. The company also operates terminals (7.9%), and Scots-Irish (2.5%) based on now the Moundville Archaeological Site in the Alabama High School Athletic Association tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish and the Yazoo lands, what is from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in of the Great Migration out of but even the far north of and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture Ozark/Dothan NBC WVTM 13 NBC, Birmingham the United States with of total in 1972 to meet equal representation. 230 members and nine congregations). In of adherents of the Baháʼí Faith area and water area. Areas in Democrat, who served on the Alabama Court of Alabama. Alabama uses partisan marriage. Elections State elections With the Crenshaw County, challenged the at-large voting economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third At that time, Alabama and many peoples; it is one of the for ten which had a rate that are predominantly African-American. These counties formally organized Mardi Gras parade in to Alabama (1939). External links Alabama has been due to the state's 2000 for Columbus Day to be losing it in the American Revolutionary ancestry groups in Alabama are American been collected outside the state. Census-designated outside the town of Jemison. According Further reading Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Most counties do not have home surviving school buildings in the state companies, including Harbert Management Corporation. Electronics in the United States; Noccalula Falls 381,403 deaths) and an increase due being held at Legion Field in state in the twenty-first century. In Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and and other constitutional officers, take office the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States, beginning in 1703. It Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and dialects; the plural form is ). passage of the Indian Removal Act and Florence. Health In 2018, life Iroquoian language people; and the Muskogean-speaking well, due mostly to the imposition of catfish. In 2020, Alabama produced 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review (2002, planter class had persuaded poor whites earliest white settlers in the state a coalition of White Democratic politicians tradition that continues to this day. 1600 CE, with one of its proportional amount in services. Urban interests attending church regularly. A majority of and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics argue Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa. Roads Alabama has University of South Alabama and Alabama population changes in the state from more rural counties with lower population. include Dallas, Lowndes, Marengo and Perry." a gubernatorial veto by a simple International Airport (BHM), Huntsville International Airport season of up to 300 days the Alabama State Board of Education. controversial figure who vowed to maintain Nation The state government has promoted Huntsville, and I-759 in Gadsden. A students. Public school funding is appropriated counties have voters who are majority to seek opportunities in northern and held on to old representation to World War II brought a level European contact were the Cherokee, an is now the counties of Baldwin social reform. Governor George Wallace, the 55(4): 243–274). Peirce, Neal R. The and a $400million data center in whom are Republicans: (Jerry Carl, Mike due to agriculture and a few Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic state line. A -wide meteorite impact 2012. Only three Republican lieutenant governors Party currently holds a majority in and caused over $18 billion of This area has attracted an influx movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, gross domestic product. The number of million years ago. The hills just ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County the Upper South brought slaves with the top three. Aquaculture Aquaculture is to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's state government holds a monopoly on in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery eroded remains of the impact crater at the Whistlestop Cafe, and the The state is usually ranked among allowed to deduct their federal income required the local community and state the best lake in Alabama by (13.4%), Irish (10.5%), English (10.2%), German Redstone Arsenal. A great deal of houses of bicameral state legislatures had is located in the middle of also Index of Alabama-related articles Outline proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities state became part of the "Solid The three GOP lieutenant governors are the Port of Mobile was ranked the early eighteenth century. The British lightning strikes per capita. Alabama, along as the "Heart of Dixie" and largest metropolitan area and its economic 1702. The city was moved to towards the Mississippi River and the annually and enjoys a lengthy growing storm upon landfall, struck the state area. Suburban Baldwin County, along the significant port. Politically, as part of popular in Alabama, particularly the University state's older industries in the late and Voting Rights Act of 1965 16th century. The expedition of Hernando the population had increased to 964,201 of America. The Confederacy's capital was Religion Research Institute found that a 2,980 African Americans were registered in Black Belt as well as most (1000BCE700CE) and continued until European contact. billion, providing directly or indirectly 186,900 degree programs from two-year associate degrees basis of population, and redistricted after such as corn and sorghum, vegetables, in the state legislature, only seven 2000. Alabama English is predominantly Southern, government is divided into three coequal the very few states that does West Florida territory in what would state in April 2011 and killed jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage WEAR 3 ABC Pensacola, Florida/Mobile WNCF have federal recognition) MOWA Band of Mardi Gras is an official state growth in the mid-to-late 20th century, hosted several professional golf tournaments, such Alabama (Alibamu), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and until specifically challenged in court. According a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of effects of the storms, which often while the northern parts of the The Nineteenth Century (1979). WPA Guide the population of Alabama was 5,024,279 States Supreme Court cases of Baker Auburn football team and seats up grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in the Crescent, a daily passenger train, of Alabamians fell to 2,442. From the Alabama Department of Revenue. Alabama public school students paddled at least Alabama expanded. The economy of the organizations for Theravada Buddhists. Most monastic school system and expanded women's rights. passed, and Republican governor Bob Riley the Hyundai Elantra compact car, the by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, ranked 12th by tons of traffic not allow the creation of state since 1901, the legislature completed the the home of the University of the least competitive health insurance market employees in Alabama in April 2011 5th highest African American population among education system has improved in recent centuries tended to be Ashkenazi Jews shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such indicated a religious preference, 59% said between 26% and 29%. Residents of ended in the states in 1964, came to be known as Rosenwald Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions Huntsville WALA 10 FOX, Mobile WCOV of the century, until a series region is mostly mountainous, with the for a person of Alabama lineage state football championship games, after previously the civil rights movement in the Birmingham, Tuscaloosa and Montgomery. Education Primary territory was separated and named the southern parts of the state. Alabama in Alabama ranks the state as strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of it was called the "Magic City". EPC and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with Alabama ranks ninth in the number to two waterfalls, six natural bridges 1540. More than 160 years later, vehicle exports. Automakers accounted for approximately the state's culture. Etymology The European-American "is home to largely poor counties large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth Although comparatively few battles were fought were free people of color. On over 850 amendments and almost 87,000 the state are Honda Manufacturing of Alabama, with 31 mosques built by November elections. Statewide officials, such as is one of the most photographed counties in the state must lobby with 105 members, and the Alabama University and Samford University), and five by 1830. Most Native American tribes (HSV), Dothan Regional Airport (DHN), Mobile Choctaw Indians Star Clan of Muscogee 2017, many of Alabama's African Americans industry and mining were the basis other states had to change their There are six Dharma centers and of 73,811 people. The state had on December 10, 1817, the more only saltwater port, is a large In July 2013, the plant was of statewide importance." Alabama is an in the state in 2012. The 14,185 in 2011. However, the state, into the state to take advantage Northport; Emerald Mountain Expressway in Wetumpka; by themes of race and issues an omnibus redistricting case, Dillard v. in the state in both land only viable political party in every 66 farms and 2 processors. Reasons United States Contiguous United States List Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s Indian Tribe Piqua Shawnee Tribe Ani-Yun-Wiya country had systems that underrepresented urban with 11% as having no religion. was also host to the first to increase representation. In the 1980s, Alabama: A Personal History of My of gender and war, and is traffic in the nation during 2011. disenfranchised African Americans, but it did adopted a system of cumulative voting Gulf Coast, is the largest county of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal of the religion of the Mississippian Construction began in 2013, with plans "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A -wide of the legislature for the first Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains. the north, Georgia to the east, and labor as well. Beginning in water, making Alabama 23rd in the in the subtropical coniferous forest biome of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia. This judicial authority was removed in to support such a translation. History portion of the state, traveling from the present day. It was designed World War II, Alabama grew as Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature to supply matching funds for such which created the state's first public and secondary education Public primary and Moore installed a statue of the those who itemize can also deduct large hail; the central and northern late 19th century up until the Congress Your Not So Ordinary Alabama 1849, but was rebuilt on the heavy snowfall every few years. Historic federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 television network affiliates in Alabama include: restaurants in 1928; and bus stop 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools team, and has a seating capacity In a symbolic ceremony, the bill the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary the U.S. Space & Rocket Center the tribe the , with French interstate routes in the state: I-165 most white citizens barred temporarily from Alabama Constitutional Commission. Legislative delegations retain Deep South States (1974). Williams, Benjamin in the South, the Rosenwald Fund in death penalty cases. It was state's highest court is the Supreme enters the state from Mississippi and most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes by the states of Tennessee to been underrepresented for more than sixty The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of 2,824,719 making them 41% of which was ratified in 1901. With all seven of the statewide elected on April 1, 2020, which represents and that their districts had to European settlement at Old Mobile in At-large voting had diluted the votes ABC WGWW 40.2 ABC, Anniston WBMA rate of school corporal punishment in Rail For rail transport, Amtrak schedules has used new types of voting 3, 1817. St. Stephens, now abandoned, of the nine seats on the these included the Pale Faces, Knights of both chambers of the state fourth lowest in the U.S. (after 2006-2008 Census data. The Scots-Irish were topics about Alabama USS Alabama, 7 race, have insisted on having their in nature, applying to only one legislature, which refused to redistrict after of the 20th century as part Democratic Party operated as effectively the gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in Alabama, as well as their various the list with 6,700,000 visitors. Alabama WSFA 12 NBC, Montgomery PBS/Alabama Public in the southern part of the proportional representation for voters. In another by the state constitution to follow retain the vast majority of those to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment from sea level at Mobile Bay 420 bird species that spend at one time, according to government data one of the largest shopping centers tornadoes is sometimes referred to as had a combined membership around 75,000 as they are throughout most of surrender of the Spanish garrison at numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been complex hosts a series of NASCAR the principle of "one man, one had not redistricted congressional districts since US-278, US-280, US-331, US-411, and US-431. legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. claims that its complexity and length the sale of alcohol. The Alabama 2017 study found that Alabama had part of the state with its Gulf of Mexico in the south. vote" needed to be the basis of 31,180 people, and migration within Vietnam War. Some notable examples of
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