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2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_0 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | The High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor
Michael A. Fu ¨tterera, Gerhard Strydomb, Hiroyuki Satoc,F uL id, Eric Abonneaue, Tim Abramf, Mike W. Daviesg, Minwhan Kimh,
Lyndon Edwardsi, Ondrej Muranskyi, Manuel A. Pouchonj, and Metin Yetisirk,aEuropean Commission, Joint Research Centre,
Petten, The Netherlands;bIdaho Natio... | 1,490 | 388 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_1 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Outlook 520
References 522
Glossary
AGR Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor
AVR Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor
BISO Bi-Structural Isotropic Fuel
GCR Gas-Cooled Reactor
GIFGeneration IV International Forum
GT-MHR Gas Turbine Modular Helium-cooled Reactor
HTGR High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor
HTR High Temperature Gas-Coo... | 1,591 | 390 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_2 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | fully ceramic fuel. They are characterized by inherent safety features, excellent fission product retention in the fuel, and high temper-
ature operation suitable for the delivery of industrial process heat, in particular hydrogen production. Typical coolant outlet temper-
atures range between 750/C14C and 850/C14C, thu... | 1,389 | 339 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_3 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | to remain in operation until 2023 –30, although their life extension required clearance of graphite cracking issues and two power
plants have to run at lower power because of the observation of cracks in boilers. This multi-decade effort in the development andoperation of gas-cooled reactors allowed for collection of a... | 1,585 | 380 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_4 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | In 1962 –63, a 3.3 MWth Mobile Low-Power Reactor (ML-1) with 140 (330 nominal) kWe was built in the US with a closed-cycle
nitrogen turbine. The project was not pursued because it could not ful fill the power output expectations.
In 1964, the Experimental Gas-Cooled Reactor (EGCR) was built at ORNL in the US, but not co... | 1,439 | 371 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_5 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | 3 MWth using helium at 3.4 MPa (870 –1300/C14C). It used extruded fuel with TRISO coated particles in an annular rotatable core for
on-line refueling.
More details on the development of HTR technology can be found in a recent authoritative summary ( Kugeler and Zhang, 2019 ).
.to modern characteristics
The following de... | 1,605 | 382 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_6 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | core ( Fig. 2 ).
Invented by Peter Fortescue and his team at General Dynamics in the US, the prismatic block core is built from hexagonal
graphite blocks containing vertical holes. Some of these holes are used for helium cooling, while others receive the fuel in the
form of “compacts ”, which are little cylinders (typ... | 1,526 | 370 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_7 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | that time. The UO 2fuel kernels were made by external gelation of uranyl nitrate in ammonia and, after a heat treatment, coatings
were deposited on top of these kernels via pyrolysis of hydrocarbons in a fluidized bed. The next development step was the early
BISO (bi-structural isotropic) particle fuel comprising a buff... | 1,527 | 384 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_8 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | are inserted into hexagonal blocks made of graphite, which are then assembled to constitute the reactor core contained in a pressurevessel.
Typical pebble and compact design characteristics are given in Table 1 :
Which HTR versions were developed?
Based on these characteristics, in the 1960s two different types of reac... | 1,406 | 352 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_9 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | caused its decommissioning for economic reasons.
Over the same period, Germany developed and built an experimental pebble bed reactor (AVR, 46 MWth/15 MWe, Pohl, 2008 )
at the Jülich Research Centre that successfully operated from 1967 to 1988 and produced valuable feedback on different types ofpebble fuels and overall... | 1,519 | 391 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_10 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Kernel diameter [ mm] 502 425
Enrichment [U-235 wt%] 16.76 14
Thickness of coatings [ mm]:
bufferinner PyCSiC
outer PyC92
403540100
403540
Particle diameter [ mm] 916 855
Fuel element (FE) Pebble Compact
Dimensions [mm] B60
(spherical)B12.3/C225
(cylindrical)
Heavy metal loading [g/FE] 6.0 1.27
U-235 content [g/FE] 1.0... | 1,194 | 365 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_11 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | of heat exchangers and a steam reformer. It was brought to a halt in 1989 after the Chernobyl accident, which caused a temporarystop of HTR development worldwide.
In the 1980s, Interatom/Siemens in Germany developed the 200 MWth HTR-Modul as the first modular pebble bed design con-
sisting of a metallic reactor pressure... | 1,482 | 373 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_12 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | /C14C. Extensive analysis has shown that this reactor, and more generally most HTR
designs, are particularly suitable for the incineration of excess plutonium which became an issue in the US and in the former USSR
for the implementation of the START I disarmament treaty in 1991. Hydrogen production with the Sulfur-Iodi... | 1,606 | 391 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_13 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | One of these new projects was the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR, Matzner, 2004 ) in the Republic of South Africa. PBMR
Pty. Ltd. is a public-private partnership established in 1999 in response to threats of nation-wide power outages in South Africa andto initiate the development of a modular pebble-bed reactor with ... | 1,622 | 391 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_14 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | CO
2emission limits. The new focus of the PBMR was on onsite power, cogeneration, seawater desalination and direct process heat
delivery. Target process heat applications included coal-to-liquid or gaseous fuels, petrochemicals, ammonia/fertilizer, re fineries,
steam for oil sand recovery, bulk hydrogen for future trans... | 1,791 | 371 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_15 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | been solved to a large extent, so that most recent HTR designs could be deliberately geared towards short-term realization with
minimum R&D efforts and development risks. In addition, with a much longer-term view, a number of research organizations
cooperate internationally on the Very High Temperature Reactor, which i... | 1,630 | 384 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_16 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | In parallel with tests on the HTTR, JAEA is developing the S-I thermo-chemical process to produce hydrogen ( Fig. 4 ). Afirst demon-
stration of this process was achieved in 2003 when a continuous production of 30 l/h of hydrogen was maintained for several days.
During the March 2011 earthquake, which triggered the Fuku... | 1,554 | 365 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_17 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | scaling up this technology to the High Temperature Reactor –Pebble bed Module (HTR-PM, 210 MWe) project ( Zhang et al., 2016 )
.
Together with their predecessors, HTTR and HTR-10 have signi ficantly contributed to the establishment of the rather high tech-
nology readiness level both for block type and pebble bed HTR de... | 1,643 | 383 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_18 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | ing with the Three Mile Island accident in 1979.
In general, most HTR operational issues were associated, as already mentioned, with leakages, e.g. moisture ingress that resulted
in corrosion of components, core temperature oscillations caused by coolant flow bypass and in-core behavior of graphite (cracking,
dimensiona... | 1,834 | 394 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_19 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | producing less than 300 MWe. A snapshot of the very dynamic SMR landscape is given in ( IAEA, 2018 ). These reactors are being
designed by several classical vendor companies and start-ups for flexibility, affordability, for a wide range of users and applications,
Fig. 5 External view of HTR-10 building in China and Cont... | 1,769 | 365 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_20 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | design information can be found in ( IAEA, 2018 ).
R&D efforts as well as cooperation between all stakeholders (vendors, suppliers, regulators, utilities/end-users, investors, poli-
ticians, public etc.) are ongoing and organized at different national and international levels including GIF, IAEA, OECD-NEA, and
are incl... | 1,600 | 382 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_21 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | MHTGR-350 General Atomics, USA
GT-MHR OKBM Afrikantov, Russian Federation
MHR-T Reactor/Hydrogen Production Complex OKBM Afrikantov, Russian Federation
MHR-100 OKBM Afrikantov, Russian Federation
SC-HTGR Framatome Inc., USA
MMR-5, MMR-10 UltraSafe Nuclear Corporation, USA
StarCore HTGR StarCore Nuclear, Canada
U Batter... | 1,778 | 395 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_22 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Examples for low temperature applications of nuclear heat include seawater desalination (Japan, Kazakhstan), paper and card-
board industry (Norway, Switzerland), heavy water distillation (Canada), or salt re fining (Germany).
The technology options for nuclear process heat utilization with HTRs were already documented ... | 1,615 | 368 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_23 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | In the 1980s, the necessary components, e.g. heat exchangers or reformers, were developed and tested under nuclear conditions in
Germany and in Japan ( Harth et al., 1990 ).
Processes and components for allothermal and steam coal gasi fication processes were also tested in Germany. They require typi-
cally steam in the ... | 1,571 | 374 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_24 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | for VHTR operating at 900 –1000/C14. The market for bulk hydrogen is currently very large and growing fast, with distribution networks
already in place in several countries. To justify large-scale production of hydrogen, the development of a speci fic“hydrogen
economy ”is not required. Hydrogen uses include upgrading of... | 1,665 | 340 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_25 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | To further corroborate the incentive for process heat and hydrogen production with nuclear energy, several market research,
economic analyses, trade studies, and business plans were recently prepared in several countries, some of which are publicly avail-able (e.g. Angulo et al., 2012 ;Bredimas, 2012 ;INL, 2012 ;Konefa... | 1,696 | 377 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_26 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | and deployment. Currently, cooperation on the VHTR within GIF focuses on development and quali fication of (i) fuel, (ii) struc-
tural and functional materials, (iii) hydrogen production processes and (iv) computer tools. GIF has also produced guidance for (V)
HTR designers, e.g. in the areas of sustainability, economy,... | 1,879 | 387 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_27 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | See Also: Fuel Design and Fabrication: TRISO Particle Fuel; Pebble Bed Gas Cooled Reactors; Self-Sustaining Breeding in Advanced Reactors:
Characterization of Selected Reactors.
Fig. 7 Installation of RPV into HTR-PM reactor building in 2016.The High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor 521References
Angulo, C., et al., 2012... | 1,321 | 355 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_28 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Japan, 28 October–1 November 2012 .
Daniels, F., 1944. Suggestions for a High-Temperature Pebble Pile. MUC-FD-8; N-1668b. Chicago University Metallurgical Laboratory, Chicago, Ill inois.
Dietrich G, Michels J, Cleve U (2019) Personal communication 2015 –2020.
Dong, Y., 2012. China ’s activities in HTGRs HTR-10 and HTR-... | 1,193 | 383 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_29 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | energy-systems-2018-update .
Gougar, H., 2011. The Very High Temperature Reactor, Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, and Applications. Steven Krivit, Editor-i n-Chief. John Wiley and Sons,
ISBN 978-0-470-89439-2.
Gougar, H., et al., 2020. The US Department of Energy ’s high temperature reactor research a... | 1,273 | 371 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_30 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Technology Symposium - SYP2019. Helsinki, Finland, 30–31 October 2019 .
Konefal, J., Rackiewicz, D., 2008. Survey of HTGR Process Energy Applications. MPR Associates report MPR-3181, May 2008.Kugeler, K., Zhang, Z., 2019. Modular High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor Power Plant, 1st edn. Springer, ISBN 978-3-662-57710-3... | 859 | 309 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_31 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | LaBar, M.P., 2002. The gas turbine-modular helium reator: A promising option for near-term deployment. In: General Atomics. GA-A23952, 2002.Lommers, L.J., Shahrokhi, F., Mayer III, J.A., Southworth, F.H., 2012. AREVA HTR concept for near-term deployment. Nuclear Engineering and Design 2 51 (2012), 292 –296.
Matzner, D.... | 1,148 | 359 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_32 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | 00963402.2016.1170395 , 2016
Rempe, J.L., 2021. U.S. Nuclear Reactor Regulation of Two non-LWRs. In: Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy, vol. 2, pp. 175 –187.
Reutler, H., Lohnert, G.H., 1984. Advantages of going modular in HTRs. Nuclear Engineering and Design 78 (1984), 129 –136.
Rosen, M., Naterer, G., Sadhankar, R., Sup... | 1,140 | 357 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_33 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Siemens (1988) Hochtemperaturreaktor-Modul-Kraftwerksanlage, Kurzbeschreibung , Siemens/Interatom, Germany, November 1988
Styring, P., Jansen, D., de Coninck, H., Reith, H., Armstrong, K., 2011. Carbon Capture and Utilisation in the Green Economy, Using CO 2to Manufacture Fuel, Chemicals and
Materials. The Centre for L... | 1,150 | 350 |
2021_MF_VHTR.pdf_34 | 2021_MF_VHTR.pdf | Wu, Z., Lin, D., Zhong, D., 2002. The design features of the HTR-10. Nuclear Engineering and Design 218 (2002), 25 –32.
Yan, X.L., Hino, R., 2011. Nuclear Hydrogen Production Handbook. CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-4398-1083-5.Zhang, Z., et al., 2016. The Shandong Shidao Bay 200 MWe high-temperature gas-cooled reactor pebble-b... | 485 | 154 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_35 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Gen IV Gas-cooled Fast Reactor system PR&PP White Paper
1
GIF-LFR-WP-Rev9 – Limited: GIF
GIF GAS-COOLED FAST REACTOR
PROLIFERATION RESISTANCE AND
PHYSICAL PROTECTION WHITE
PAPER
Proliferation Resistance and Physical Protection
Working Group (PRPPWG)
Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor System Steering... | 1,454 | 374 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_36 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or
process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.
References herein to any specific commercial product, process or service by trade
name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not nece... | 1,683 | 375 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_37 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | The Proliferation Resistance and Physical Protection Working Group (PRPPWG) was established by GIF to
develop, implement and foster the use of an evaluation methodology to assess Generation IV nuclear energy
systems with respect to the GIF PR&PP goal, whereby: Generation IV nuclear energy systems will increase
the a... | 1,855 | 364 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_38 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | the PRPPWG and the SSCs/pSSCs according to a common template. The intent was to generate preliminary
information about the PR&PP merits of each system and to recommend directions for optimizing its PR&PP
performance. The initial release of the white papers was published by GIF in 2011 as individual chapters in a
com... | 1,728 | 363 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_39 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | subnational/terrorist group (theft of material or sabotage).
The SSCs and pSSC representatives were invited to attend PRPPWG meetings, where progress on the white
papers was discussed in dedicated sessions. A session with all the SSCs and pSSCs was organized in Paris
in October 2018 on the sideline of the GIF 2018 Sy... | 1,726 | 381 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_40 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | in the 2011 report “Proliferation Resistance and Physical Protection of the Six Generation IV Nuclear Energy
Systems”, prepared Jointly by the Proliferation Resistance and Physical Protection Working Group (PRPPWG)
and the System Steering Committees and provisional System Steering Committees of the Generation IV
Int... | 1,765 | 384 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_41 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Benjamin Cipiti PRPPWG Sandia National Laboratory
Michael Fütterer VHTR SSC
Hans Gougar VHTR SSC
Gerhard Strydom VHTR SSC Idaho National Laboratory
Christial Pohl
Abderrafi Ougouag
Hideyuki Sato VHTR SSC Japan Atomic Energy Agency
Acknowledgements
The current document updates and builds upon the 2011 VHTR PR&PP White P... | 2,109 | 386 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_42 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | 3.1.1. Fresh Fuel fabrication...............................................................................................................11
3.1.2. Fresh Fuel shipment.................................................................................................................12
3.1.3. Fresh Fuel receiving........... | 2,986 | 364 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_43 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | 6. PR&PP Issues, Concerns and Benefits................................................................................................28
7. References ..............................................................................................................................................29
APPENDIX 1: VHTR Major D... | 2,828 | 391 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_44 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Figure 14: Movement of the fuel pebbles........................................................................................................ 17
Figure 15: Plutonium build-up in a PBMR fuel element in an equilibrium core ..............................................20
Figure 16: Material Balance Areas and Key Measur... | 1,968 | 392 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_45 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | PBMR Pebble Bed Modular Reactor
PP Physical Protection
PR Proliferation Resistance
PR&PP Proliferation Resistance & Physical Protection
PWR Pressurized Water Reactor
RCCS Reactor Cavity Cooling System
RDD Radiological Dispersion Device
SC-HTGR Steam Cycle High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor
SSC System Steering Committe... | 1,615 | 369 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_46 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | concepts, considering the designs’ evolution in the last decade.
Various versions of the VHTR are under development in several countries that are members
of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF), including the People’s Republic of China,
France, Japan, the Russian Federation, Republic of South Africa, Republic ... | 1,761 | 361 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_47 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | the VHTR less vulnerable to a significant risk of "radiological sabotage" through malevolent
acts.
There are currently five concepts for the prismatic VHTR under consideration by different GIF
countries. The first two of the following have the generic features of low-enriched uranium
(LEU) and plutonium-fuelled blo... | 1,521 | 363 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_48 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | (designated ANTARES) [9, 10], which began as a collaboration in France with other
EURATOM participants in the High Temperature Reactor-Technology Network (HTR-TN). The
ANTARES Modular HTR is also envisioned to be a 600 MWt cogeneration plant; however, the
schedule for completion of research and development depends o... | 1,625 | 375 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_49 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | technology from the JAEA 30 MWt High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) into
a 600 MWt configuration. The reactor design is based on a prismatic core and can achieve a
reactor outlet temperature of 950°C.
Republic of Korea – The Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) is pursuing the
Nuclear Hydroge... | 1,610 | 369 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_50 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | 167Er to provide a neutron poison with a thermal neutron capture resonance to guarantee a
negative moderator temperature reactivity coefficient.
Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP White Paper
3Figure 1: Illustration of Coated Particle Fuel in the Prismatic Fuel design [14]
The TRISO-coated par... | 1,695 | 364 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_51 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | toward the top of the core where the inlet cooling gas has the lowest temperature. The power
density is lowest in the bottom of the core where the temperature of the outlet coolant is
highest. The fuel and burnable poison loading patterns are specified so that the peak fuel
temperature will be below the limit for no... | 1,668 | 369 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_52 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | PARTICLE
SCOMPACTS FUEL ELEMENTSTRISO Coated fuel particles (left) are formed
into fuel rods (center) and inserted into
graphite fuel elements (right).Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP White Paper
4indirect heat transfer to process heat user (e.g., Hydrogen production).
The vessel configura... | 1,521 | 374 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_53 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | to threats of nation-wide power outages in South Africa and to initiate the development of a
modular pebble-bed reactor (PBMR) with a rated capacity of 165 MWe. This design featured
a thermal power of 400 MWth and a direct power conversion with a gas turbine operating with
a helium outlet temperature of 900 ºC. Due ... | 1,606 | 374 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_54 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | builds on the success of the Tsinghua University's HTR-10 test reactor [20], is being
constructed in two module units producing 500 MWt and 210 MWe. Each power plant
comprises two reactor modules with individual steam generators sharing a single turbo-
generator. A 6-module, 600 MWt generating station is undergoing d... | 1,671 | 374 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_55 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | of spent fuel present since, with no more than 0.12 grams of plutonium per pebble, it would
take several tens of thousands of pebbles (or several metric tons by total mass and cubic
meters by volume) to be diverted to constitute the basis for recovering a significant quantity of
plutonium. Further, at a burnup aroun... | 1,492 | 365 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_56 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | will continue into 2021 with subsequent connection to the grid. All other concepts require
further development and are at least ten years in the future.
Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP White Paper
82. Overview of Fuel Cycle(s)
A comparison of the vendor-proposed VHTR fuel cycle parameters is... | 1,746 | 374 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_57 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | security measures, compared to LEU, which incurs added complexity and cost to the fuel cycle.
X-Energy is considering a range of other fuel cycle options for future reactor deployments
including plutonium disposition and transuranic elements (TRU)/MA transmutation and the use
of thorium (Th-232) as a fertile componen... | 1,823 | 370 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_58 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Second, VHTR fuel cycles can be categorized by the types of fuel particles used, as follows:
LEU fuel particles with or without natural uranium fertile fuel particles.
Pu fuel particles.
TRU or MA fuel particles.
U-233 fuel particles (or U-233 with U-238).
Thorium (or thorium with uranium) fertile fuel particles.
... | 1,593 | 373 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_59 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | recycled. Recycle may occur with either aqueous or pyroprocessing methods, and recycled
materials may be returned to VHTRs or LWRsLWR or sent to fast reactors. Either method
would require a ‘head-end’ process to de-consolidate the coated particles from the graphite
and ‘crack’ the silicon carbide coating so that th... | 1,790 | 373 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_60 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | The challenges of realizing such fuel cycles at the commercial level have become major R&D
topics internationally, and many efforts are ongoing. For one of those examples, see the
reference [22]. In addition, the waste graphite and SiC can be decontaminated to reduce waste
volume. Studies on the subject are ongoing ... | 1,687 | 371 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_61 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | conceal by a proliferating state.
The use of LEU is currently planned in both B-VHTR and P-VHTR due to its low
proliferation characteristics. For states that own their own domestic enrichment capability, the
raw LEU material for fresh fuel fabrication is more attractive than the fabricated graphite fuel
forms (bl... | 1,669 | 372 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_62 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | communication and verification for transport. Similarly, it elevates the importance of armed
guards (i.e., a dedicated security organization) during transport and storage at facilities.
The "system elements" for B-VHTR and P-VHTR are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9,
respectively.
Figure 8: B-VHTR System element
Fig... | 1,444 | 362 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_63 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | with respect to material attractiveness. Fuel based on LEU / Th, LEU/Pu (MOX) or Pu / Th may
be used in future VHTRs. Raw material for fresh fuel fabrication is the most attractive target
over the entire set of system elements of B-VHTR and P-VHTR, from fuel fabrication to final
disposal, since it would require the ... | 1,634 | 375 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_64 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | there is no ID on fuel pebbles of P-VHTR, which requires a different safeguards approach as
B-VHTR (item-based safeguards can be applied for B-VHTR). In contrast, quasi-bulk type
safeguards are needed for P-VHTR. In the past, however, there have been cases where
safeguards were implemented by assigning IDs to pebble... | 1,621 | 363 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_65 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | them must be processed.
Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP White Paper
133.1.2. Fresh Fuel shipment
Fuel rods for B-VHTR and fuel pebbles for P-VHTR are put into containers and shipped from
fuel fabrication facilities to reactor sites. Adequate C/S system such as sealing and PP need
to be ap... | 1,750 | 370 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_66 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | therein. Fuel inventory in the reactor core is verified by measuring the fuel flow with detectors
in the door valve. Movement of the fuel handling machine is slow due to its mass of more than
100 tons. This movement can be followed by the surveillance cameras whose data should be
continuously transferred to mitigate... | 1,676 | 369 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_67 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | blocks are loaded into the vertical empty space from
where the spent fuels have been taken out. The IDs
of fuel blocks are confirmed at time of loading of fresh
fuel. The spent fuel blocks in the reactor are taken into
the revolver-rack of the refueling machine and moved
to a spent fuel storage facility by the cra... | 1,631 | 357 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_68 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | prevent leakage of the coolant (helium) in the reactor to outside. The position of door valve is
shown in Figure 12 [27]. Neutron detectors and gamma ray detectors are attached to the door
valve, since the door valve is necessary to move out core components (anything such as spent
fuel blocks, replaceable side refle... | 1,801 | 373 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_69 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | control rods are provided in the core.
Any undeclared movement of the refueling machine would be detected by surveillance
cameras. Furthermore, irradiation of undeclared material is detectable with the neutron and
gamma ray detectors attached in the door valve used for introducing and removing materials
into and fr... | 1,817 | 371 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_70 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | 3.2.6. On-site radioactive waste storage
The spent fuel blocks in storage are put in fuel transfer casks for shipping to the final disposal
or to the reprocessing plant after cooling for a certain period in the spent fuel storage on site.
Continuity of Knowledge (CoK) is maintained by use of adequate C/S systems, su... | 1,645 | 368 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_71 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | 17The containers with fuel pebbles are stored in the fresh fuel storage under an adequate C/S
system and PP for P-VHTR. These fuel pebbles are moved to the charging room to be loaded
into the reactor core. The number of fuel pebbles should be counted if it is possible, and the
movement of the fuel pebbles from the f... | 1,562 | 359 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_72 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | the fuel pebbles in the reactor [28]. Fuel
pebbles are taken out from the core
through the fuel pebble discharging
tube. Failed fuel pebbles are separated
and are stored in the scrap containers.
Sound fuel pebbles are led to the
dosing wheel where their fuel burnup
levels are measured. The fuel burnup is
evalua... | 1,645 | 373 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_73 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | is achievable for the spent fuel of P-VHTR, and it results in superior proliferation resistance
features due to large isotopic fraction of high content in plutonium that produces a high level
of decay heat. The physical inventory verification in the reactor core is performed by controlling
the number of fresh fuel p... | 1,627 | 367 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_74 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | pebbles are always to be expected to occur during irradiation in the reactor and cannot be
returned for further cycles through the core, so they had to be classified as spent fuel. However,
since those pebbles are less burnt, they are potentially more attractive in terms of Pu quality.
3.3.4. Radioactive waste storag... | 1,680 | 372 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_75 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | coated fuel particles themselves are “containers” for the fission products and the fuel itself
possesses high mechanical and chemical stability. Thus, the direct final disposal of the VHTR
fuel has reduced environmental and public impact.
Furthermore, the reprocessing of VHTR fuel is not considered attractive. The ... | 1,728 | 382 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_76 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | plutonium (both 8kg) from VHTR fuel will require the processing of metric tons and tens of
cubic meter quantities of carbon encasing coated particles using either grind-leach, burn-leach,
or electrolysis in nitric acid. A background report [14] that supported the compilation of the
original VHTR white paper (publish... | 1,437 | 381 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_77 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | fuel elements or 13.5 MT of fuel elements, which would be ~15–16% of a GT-MHR core loading
or ~17% of the MHTGR core loading.” “Thus, the mass ratio for the diversion of indirect-use
U-235 in LEU between fresh pebbles and fresh GT-MHR fuel elements is 17.4/13.5 = ~1.29
so that 29% more pebbles by mass would have to ... | 1,506 | 372 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_78 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | expected, however, that the spent LEU fuel from both the GA GT-MHR and Areva Modular
HTR will have plutonium isotopic fractions very close to the values calculated for the PBM in
Table 3.6.1.” It appears that the Pu will be of reactor grade in all cases by applying the fissile
material type metric of PRPP WG.Very-Hi... | 1,491 | 384 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_79 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | in the GT-MHR), the prismatic fuel elements can be estimated to contain on the order of 60–
70 grams of plutonium of similarly degraded isotopics.” The diversion of 1 SQ of direct-use Pu
from pebbles at full burn-up requires 8,000/0.11 = 72,727 pebbles or ~14.4 MT of fuel pebbles.
It takes 8,000/65 = 123 prismatic fu... | 1,357 | 367 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_80 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | a summary table indicating the amount of material needed to collect an SQ.
Table 2: SummaryDiversion Target U-235 from Fresh LEU Pu from Spent fuel
SQ 75 kg 8kg
Equivalent pebbles 86806 (17.4 MT) 72727 (14.4 MT)
Equivalent blocks 111 (13.5 MT) 123 (15.0 MT)Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP Whit... | 1,587 | 376 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_81 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | either grind-leach or burn-leach of electrolysis in nitric acid.
The high burnup of the spent fuel of the VHTRs is also a key proliferation resistance feature
due to the high isotopic fraction of even plutonium isotopes generating large amounts of decay
heat and high dose rate. However, it is controversial.
Historic... | 1,722 | 364 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_82 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | reliability might not be their requirement.
With those reasons considered, the current GIF PRPP WG methodology adopts weapon
Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP White Paper
23grade, reactor grade, and deep-burn grade for Pu categorization [1]. The fact that Pu in
HTGRs’ spent fuel can achieve d... | 1,665 | 363 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_83 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | of the coatings of particles. Fabricated fresh fuel can be stored under C/S measures for B-
VHTR and P-VHTR. The theft during transportation of fresh fuel can be detected by the C/S.
The raw constituents are observed under the same C/S applied for fuel fabrication of LWR.
4.1.2. Diversion of irradiated nuclear materi... | 1,698 | 368 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_84 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Diversion of Pu may be possible using the continuous fuel loading feature through early
discharging of fuel pebbles from the reactor core before even-mass-number Pu isotopes are
accumulated. However, this would be detected by the burnup measuring detectors.
Furthermore, it is technically difficult because the reproc... | 1,693 | 364 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_85 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | practical to achieve without detection.
It should be noted that B-VHTR could be used in a mode similar to that of the Magnox reactors
for producing weapon-grade plutonium. In this case, rod-type Magnox fuel containing metal
uranium would be inserted into some cooling holes of the graphite blocks instead of using
or... | 1,663 | 362 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_86 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | there are no access holes into the pipes except at the fresh fuel pebble loading location,
precluding any other pipe access into the reactor core. Irradiation of fertile materials covered
with graphite or carbon that look like fuel pebbles is possible. But such pseudo-fuel spheres
may break during movement through t... | 1,816 | 380 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_87 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | be reprocessed in the host states.
4.2.1. Diversion of existing nuclear material Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) PR&PP White Paper
25As mentioned in Section 3.4, the key proliferation resistance feature is the use of coated fuel
particles embedded within a graphite matrix. Therefore, diverting ex... | 1,715 | 366 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_88 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | and tens of cubic meter quantities of carbon encasing the fuel kernels to obtain the amount of
nuclear material necessary for production of weapons.
4.3. Pu Production in clandestine facilities
High quality graphite with very low impurity levels is used in the technology of the B-VHTR and
P-VHTR. This high quality ... | 1,837 | 372 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_89 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | theft of a significant quantity would require the theft of metric tons of contaminated graphite
and/or graphitized carbon containing the coated fuel particles. Obtaining access to a significant
quantity of plutonium or U-233 in the stolen spent fuels would require substantial effort for
reprocessing. Furthermore, pl... | 1,795 | 371 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_90 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | VHTR designs, appropriate physical protection and controls must be in place to prevent such
acts. These designs have several safety benefits from the very high temperature tolerance of
the fuel and the strong negative temperature power coefficient.
Another relevant discussion is that both VHTRs are extremely resilie... | 1,635 | 363 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_91 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | 27Finally, some points to be considered for the PP of VHTR are listed referring to the previous
VHTR white paper:
Quality controls at the fuel fabrication plant in the supplier nation.
Proper maintenance, inspection, and protection of (1) the helium supply and the helium
supply station to prevent the introduction ... | 1,718 | 361 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_92 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | safeguards are quasi-bulk, so differing safeguards approaches will be required is relatively
difficult.
Regarding PP, typical reactor site protections on the reactor, control systems, and fresh and
spent fuel storage will be required. It can be concluded that VHTRs are extremely resilient to
terrorist attacks becaus... | 1,662 | 379 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_93 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Update (2019).
[5] M. A. Fütterer, et al., "The High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor," Encyclopedia of Nuclear
Energy, Elsevier, pp. 512-522, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.12205-5
[6] M.B. Richards et al., Part 1 -- H2-MHR Pre-Conceptual Design Report: SI-Based Plant,
GA-A25401, General Atomics, Ida... | 1,139 | 377 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_94 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | [10] Brochure: ANTARES - The AREVA HTR-VHTR Design,
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/32557580/antares-the-areva-htr-vhtr-design-smr
[11] V. Petrunin et al., "Analysis of questions concerning the nonproliferation of fissile materials for
low-and medium-capacity nuclear power systems," Atomnaya Energiya 105, Issu... | 1,213 | 377 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_95 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | [15] Presentations by PBMR (Pty) Ltd. to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Public Meeting,
PBMR Safety and Design Familiarization, February 28-March 3, 2006.
[16] Johan Slabber, PBMR (Pty) Ltd., "PBMR Nuclear Material Safeguards," Paper No. B14,
Proceedings of the Conference on High Temperature Reactors, Beijing... | 1,182 | 362 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_96 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Innovation,” Engineering 2, pp. 112-118, March 2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.ENG.2016.01.020
[20] Y. Xu and K. Zuo, "Overview of the 10 MW high temperature gas cooled reactor—test module
project," Nuclear Engineering and Design 218, pp. 13–23, October 2002.
[21] The image of XE-100 Reactor downloaded from:
https:... | 1,206 | 383 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_97 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Concept for the High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor Using Unattended Fuel Flow Monitor
System," Journal of Nuclear Materials Management, Volume XXV, Number 4, August 1997.
[27] S. Saito, et al., “Design of High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR),” JAERI 1332,
1994, https://doi.org/10.11484/jaeri-1332.
... | 1,228 | 376 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_98 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | Reno, NV, Trans. ANS 85, pp. 115-117, Nov. 2001.
[33] Ougouag, A. M., S. M. Modro, W. K. Terry, and H. D. Gougar “Rational Basis for a Systematic
Identification of Critical Components and Safeguard Measures for a Pebble-Bed Reactor”
Transactions of the Winter 2002 Annual Meeting of ANS, Washington, DC, Trans. ANS 87,... | 1,122 | 376 |
2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf_99 | 2022_GIF_VHTR.pdf | SC-HTGRGeneral
Atomics
GT-MHRX-Energy
Xe-100Huaneng
Group &
CNEC/INET
HTR-PMJAEA
GTHTR300COKBM GT-
MHRKAERI
NHDD
Thermal Power (MW-th) 625 600 200 250 600 600 200
Thermal Efficiency (%) in
Electricity Generation~40 ~48 40 (inferred) 40 ~50 ~48 None, H 2
production
Primary Coolant Helium Helium Hel... | 953 | 351 |
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